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1.1 PHASES OF A MINING PROJECT
There are different phases of a mining project, beginning with mineral ore exploration and ending with the post-closure period. What follows are the typical phases of a proposed mining project. Each phase of mining is associated with different sets of environmental impacts.
1.1.1 Exploration
A mining project can only commence with knowledge of the extent and value of the mineral ore deposit. Information about the location and value of the mineral ore deposit is obtained during the exploration phase. This phase includes surveys, field studies, and drilling test boreholes and other exploratory excavations.
The exploratory phase may involve clearing of wide areas of vegetation (typically in lines), to allow the entry of heavy vehicles mounted with drilling rigs. Many countries require a separate
EIA for the exploratory phase of a mining project because the impacts of this phase can be profound and because further phases of mining may not ensue if exploration fails to find sufficient quantities of high-grade mineral ore deposits.
1.1.2 Development
If the mineral ore exploration phase proves that there is a large enough mineral ore deposit, of sufficient grade, then the project proponent may begin to plan for the development of the mine. This phase of the mining project has several distinct components.
1.1.2.1 Construction of access roads
The construction of access roads, either to provide heavy equipment and supplies to the mine site or to ship out processed metals and ores, can have substantial environmental impacts, especially if access roads cut through ecologically
- Overview of Mining and its Impacts
Proposed mining projects vary according to the type of metals or materials to be extracted from the earth. The majority of proposed mining projects involve the extraction of ore deposits such as copper, nickel, cobalt, gold, silver, lead, zinc, molybdenum, and platinum. The environmental impacts of large-scale mining projects involving
these metal ores are the subject of this Guidebook. The Guidebook does not discuss the mining of ores that are extracted using strip mining methods, including aluminum (bauxite), phosphate, and uranium. The Guidebook also does not discuss mining involving extraction of coal or aggregates, such as sand, gravel, and limestone.
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sensitive areas or are near previously isolated communities. If a proposed mining project involves the construction of any access roads, then the environmental impact assessment (EIA) for the project must include a comprehensive assessment of the environmental and social impacts of these roads.
1.1.2.2 Site preparation and clearing
If a mine site is located in a remote, undeveloped area, the project proponent may need to begin by clearing land for the construction of staging areas that would house project personnel and equipment. Even before any land is mined, activities associated with site preparation and clearing can have significant environmental impacts, especially if they are within or adjacent to ecologically sensitive areas. The EIA must assess, separately, the impacts associated with site preparation and clearing.
1.1.3 Active mining
Once a mining company has constructed access roads and prepared staging areas that would house project personnel and equipment, mining may commence. All types of active mining share a common aspect: the extraction and concentration (or beneficiation) of a metal from the earth. Proposed mining projects differ considerably in the proposed method for extracting and concentrating the metallic ore.
In almost every case, metallic ores are buried under a layer of ordinary soil or rock (called ‘overburden’ or ‘waste rock’) that must be moved or excavated to allow access to the ore deposit. The first way in which proposed mining projects differ is the proposed method of moving or excavating the overburden. What follows are brief descriptions of the most common methods.
1.1.3.1 Open-pit mining
Open-pit mining is a type of strip mining in which the ore deposit extends very deep in the ground, necessitating the removal of layer upon layer of overburden and ore.
In many cases, logging of trees and clear-cutting or burning of vegetation above the ore deposit may precede removal of the overburden. The use of heavy machinery, usually bulldozers and dump trucks, is the most common means of removing overburden. Open-pit mining often involves the removal of natively vegetated areas, and is therefore among the most environmentally- destructive types of mining, especially within tropical forests.
Because open-pit mining is employed for ore deposits at a substantial depth underground, it usually involves the creation of a pit that extends below the groundwater table. In this case, groundwater must be pumped out of the pit to allow mining to take place. A pit lake usually forms at some point in time after mining stops and the groundwater pumps are turned off.
Erosion near a mining road, Pelambres mine, Chile PHOTO: Rocio Avila Fernandez
Open-pit mine in Cerro de Pasco, Peru PHOTO: Centro de Cultura Popular LABOR, Peru
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1.1.6 Beneficiation
Although metallic ores contain elevated levels of metals, they generate large quantities of waste. For example, the copper content of a good grade copper ore may be only one quarter of one percent. The gold content of a good grade gold ore may be only a few one-hundredths of a percent. Therefore, the next step in mining is grinding (or milling) the ore and separating the relatively small quantities of metal from the non- metallic material of the ore in a process called ‘beneficiation.’
Milling is one of the most costly parts of beneficiation, and results in very fine particles that allow better extraction of the metal. However, milling also allows a more complete release of contaminants when these particles become tailings. Tailings are what remains following milling of the ore to fine particles and extraction of the valuable metal(s).
Beneficiation includes physical and/or chemical separation techniques such as gravity concentration, magnetic separation, electrostatic separation, flotation, solvent extraction, electrowinning, leaching, precipitation, and amalgamation (often involving the use of mercury). Wastes from these processes include waste rock dumps, tailings, heap leach materials (for gold and silver operations), and dump leach materials (for copper leach operations).
Leaching involving the use of cyanide is a kind of beneficiation process, usually used with gold, silver, and copper ores, that merits separate attention because of the serious environmental and public safety impacts. With leaching, finely ground ore is deposited in a large pile (called a ‘leach pile’) on top of an impermeable pad, and a solution containing cyanide is sprayed on top of the pile. The cyanide solution dissolves the desired metals and the ‘pregnant’ solution containing the metal is collected from the bottom of the pile using a system of pipes.
1.1.7 Tailings disposal
As previously discussed, even high-grade mineral ores consist almost entirely of non-metallic materials and often contain undesired toxic metals (such as cadmium, lead, and arsenic). The beneficiation process generates high-volume waste called ‘tailings,’ the residue of an ore that remains after it has been milled and the desired metals have been extracted (e.g., with cyanide (gold) or sulfuric acid (copper)).
If a mining project involves the extraction of a few hundred million metric tons of mineral ore, then the mine project will generate a similar quantity of tailings. How a mining company disposes of this high-volume toxic waste material is one of the central questions that will determine whether a proposed mining project is environmentally acceptable. The key long-term goal of tailings disposal and management is to prevent the mobilization and release into the environment of toxic constituents of the tailings.
An entire section of this Guidebook is devoted to a detailed comparison of tailings disposal options (see Section 3.2.1.3). These options include: (1) the use of a wet tailings impoundment facility or ‘tailings pond’; (2) dewatering and disposal of dry tailings as backfill; and (3) sub-marine tailings disposal.
The first option (a tailings pond) is by far the most commonly used option, but the second option
Heap leach, Bighorn gold mine, CA PHOTO: Bender Environmental Consulting
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(dry tailings disposal) is, in most circumstances, the environmentally-preferable option. The third option (sub-marine tailings disposal) is sometimes proposed with mine sites located near deep sea environments, or in rare instances in freshwater lakes. Sub-marine tailings disposal has a poor environmental record in the few instances where it has been practiced.
Before the adoption of environmental laws and standards, many mining companies simply dumped tailings in the nearest convenient location, including nearby rivers and streams. Some of the worst environmental consequences of mining have been associated with the open dumping of tailings, a practice now nearly universally rejected. The International Finance Corporation (IFC)/World Bank Group explains:
“Riverine (e.g., rivers, lakes, and lagoons) or shallow marine tailings disposal is not considered good international industry practice. By extension, riverine dredging which requires riverine tailings disposal is also not considered good international practice.”^1
1 IFC/World Bank (December 2007) “Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines for Mining.” http://www.ifc.org/ ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui_EHSGuide- lines2007_Mining/$FILE/Final+-+Mining.pdf
1.1.8 Site reclamation and closure
When active mining ceases, mine facilities and the site are reclaimed and closed. The goal of mine site reclamation and closure should always be to return the site to a condition that most resembles the pre-mining condition. Mines that are notorious for their immense impact on the environment often made impacts only during the closure phase, when active mining operations ceased. These impacts can persist for decades and even centuries. Therefore, the EIA for every proposed mining project must include a detailed discussion of the mine Reclamation and Closure Plan offered by the mining proponent.
Mine reclamation and closure plans must describe in sufficient detail how the mining company will restore the site to a condition that most resembles pre-mining environmental quality; how it will prevent – in perpetuity – the release of toxic contaminants from various mine facilities (such as abandoned open pits and tailings impoundments); and how funds will be set aside to insure that the costs of reclamation and closure will be paid for.
An entire section of this Guidebook is devoted to a discussion of how to evaluate whether the Reclamation and Closure Plan offered by a mining proponent is adequate (see Section 3.7).
Wet tailings disposal at a mine in Peru PHOTO: Centro de Cultura Popular LABOR, Peru
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“TOXIC METALS: Acid mine drainage also dissolves toxic metals, such as copper, aluminum, cadmium, arsenic, lead and mercury, from the surrounding rock. These metals, particularly the iron, may coat the stream bottom with an orange-red colored slime called yellowboy. Even in very small amounts, metals can be toxic to humans and wildlife. Carried in water, the metals can travel far, contaminating streams and groundwater for great distances. The impacts to aquatic life may range from immediate fish kills to sub- lethal, impacts affecting growth, behavior or the ability to reproduce.
“Metals are particularly problematic because they do not break down in the environment. They settle to the bottom and persist in the stream for long periods of time, providing a long-term source of contamination to the aquatic insects that live there, and the fish that feed on them.
“PERPETUAL POLLUTION: Acid mine drainage is particularly harmful because it can continue indefinitely causing damage long after mining has ended. Due to the severity of water quality impacts from acid mine drainage, many hardrock mines across the west require water treatment in perpetuity. Even with existing technology, acid mine drainage is virtually impossible to stop once the reactions begin. To permit an acid generating mine means that future generations will take responsibility for a mine that must be managed for possibly hundreds of years.”^2
1.2.1.2 Erosion of soils and mine wastes into surface waters
For most mining projects, the potential of soil and sediment eroding into and degrading surface water quality is a serious problem.
2 Earthworks Fact Sheet: Hardrock Mining and Acid Mine Drainage. http://www.earthworksaction.org/pubs/FS_AMD.pdf
According to a study commissioned by the European Union:
“Because of the large area of land disturbed by mining operations and the large quantities of earthen materials exposed at sites, erosion can be a major concern at hardrock mining sites. Consequently, erosion control must be considered from the beginning of operations through completion of reclamation. Erosion may cause significant loading of sediments (and any entrained chemical pollutants) to nearby waterbodies, especially during severe storm events and high snow melt periods.
“Sediment-laden surface runoff typically originates as sheet flow and collects in rills, natural channels or gullies, or artificial conveyances. The ultimate deposition of the sediment may occur in surface waters or it may be deposited within the floodplains of a stream valley. Historically, erosion and sedimentation processes have caused the build-up of thick layers of mineral fines and sediment within regional flood plains and the alteration of aquatic habitat and the loss of storage capacity within surface waters. The main factors influencing erosion includes the volume and velocity of runoff from precipitation events, the rate of precipitation infiltration downward through the soil, the amount of vegetative cover, the slope length or the distance from the point of origin of overland flow to the point where deposition begins, and operational erosion control structures.
“Major sources of erosion/sediment loading at mining sites can include open pit areas, heap and dump leaches, waste rock and overburden piles, tailings piles and dams, haul roads and access roads, ore stockpiles, vehicle and equipment maintenance areas, exploration areas, and reclamation areas. A further concern is that exposed materials from mining operations (mine workings, wastes, contaminated soils, etc.) may contribute sediments with chemical pollutants, principally heavy metals. The variability in natural
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site conditions (e.g., geology, vegetation, topography, climate, and proximity to and characteristics of surface waters), combined with significant differences in the quantities and characteristics of exposed materials at mines, preclude any generalisation of the quantities and characteristics of sediment loading.
“The types of impacts associated with erosion and sedimentation are numerous, typically producing both short-term and long- term impacts. In surface waters, elevated concentrations of particulate matter in the water column can produce both chronic and acute toxic effects in fish.
“Sediments deposited in layers in flood plains or terrestrial ecosystems can produce many impacts associated with surface waters, ground water, and terrestrial ecosystems. Minerals associated with deposited sediments may depress the pH of surface runoff thereby mobilising heavy metals that can infiltrate into the surrounding subsoil or can be carried away to nearby surface waters. The associated impacts could include substantial pH depression or metals loading to surface waters and/or persistent contamination of ground water sources. Contaminated sediments may also lower the pH of soils to the extent that vegetation and suitable habitat are lost.
“Beyond the potential for pollutant impacts on human and aquatic life, there are potential physical impacts associated with the increased runoff velocities and volumes from new land disturbance activities. Increased velocities and volumes can lead to downstream flooding, scouring of stream channels, and structural damage to bridge footings and culvert entries. In areas where air emissions have deposited acidic particles and the native vegetation has been destroyed, runoff has the potential to increase the rate of erosion and lead to removal of soil from the affected area. This is particularly true where the landscape is characterised by steep and rocky slopes. Once the soils have been removed, it is difficult for
the slope to be revegetated either naturally or with human assistance.”^3
Environment Australia summarizes the problem as follows:
“Potentially adverse effects of inadequate minesite water management and design include: unacceptably high levels of suspended solids (Non-Filterable Residue) and dissolved solids (Filterable Residue) in surface runoff [and] bed and bank erosion in waterways. It is self-evident that a Sediment and Erosion Control Plan is a fundamental component of a Minesite Water Management Plan.”^4
1.2.1.3 Impacts of tailing impoundments, waste rock, heap leach, and dump leach facilities
The impacts of wet tailings impoundments, waste rock, heap leach, and dump leach facilities on water quality can be severe. These impacts include contamination of groundwater beneath these facilities and surface waters. Toxic substances can leach from these facilities, percolate through the ground, and contaminate groundwater, especially if the bottom of these facilities are not fitted with an impermeable liner.
3 MINEO Consortium (2000) “Review of potential envi- ronmental and social impact of mining” http://www2.brgm.fr/ mineo/UserNeed/IMPACTS.pdf 4 Environment Australia (2002) “Overview of Best Practice Environmental Management in Mining.” http://www.ret.gov.au/ resources/Documents/LPSDP/BPEMOverview.pdf
Overburden drainage at an Australian mine PHOTO: Peripitus
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1.2.2 Impacts of mining projects
on air quality
Airborne emissions occur during each stage of the mine cycle, but especially during exploration, development, construction, and operational activities. Mining operations mobilize large amounts of material, and waste piles containing small size particles are easily dispersed by the wind.
The largest sources of air pollution in mining operations are:
- Particulate matter transported by the wind as a result of excavations, blasting, transportation of materials, wind erosion (more frequent in open-pit mining), fugitive dust from tailings facilities, stockpiles, waste dumps, and haul roads. Exhaust emissions from mobile sources (cars, trucks, heavy equipment) raise these particulate levels; and
- Gas emissions from the combustion of fuels in stationary and mobile sources, explosions, and mineral processing.
Once pollutants enter the atmosphere, they undergo physical and chemical changes before reaching a receptor (Figure 1). These pollutants can cause serious effects to people’s health and to the environment.
Large-scale mining has the potential to contribute significantly to air pollution, especially in the operation phase. All activities during ore extraction, processing, handling, and transport depend on equipment, generators, processes, and
materials that generate hazardous air pollutants such as particulate matter, heavy metals, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides.
1.2.2.1 Mobile sources
Mobile sources of air pollutants include heavy vehicles used in excavation operations, cars that transport personnel at the mining site, and trucks that transport mining materials. The level of polluting emissions from these sources depends on the fuel and conditions of the equipment. Even though individual emissions can be relatively small, collectively these emissions can be of real concern. In addition, mobile sources are a major source of particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and volatile organic compounds that contribute significantly to the formation of ground-level ozone.
1.2.2.2 Stationary sources
The main gaseous emissions are from combustion of fuels in power generation installations, and drying, roasting, and smelting operations. Many producers of precious metals smelt metal on-site, prior to shipping to off-site refineries. Typically, gold and silver is produced in melting/fluxing furnaces that may produce elevated levels of airborne mercury, arsenic, sulfur dioxide, and other metals.
1.2.2.3 Fugitive emissions
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency defines ‘fugitive emissions’ as “those emissions which could not reasonably pass through a stack, chimney, vent or other functionally-equivalent
Figure 1.
Impacts Human health, Environment (water, soil, wildlife), Infrastructure, Global climate
Emissions Mobile and stationary sources. (Can be measured and controlled)
Atmosphere Pollutants are transported, diluted, undergo physical and chemical changes
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opening.”^6 Common sources of fugitive emissions include: storage and handling of materials; mine processing; fugitive dust, blasting, construction activities, and roadways associated with mining activities; leach pads, and tailing piles and ponds; and waste rock piles. Sources and characteristics of fugitive emissions dust in mining operations vary in each case, as do their impacts. Impacts are difficult to predict and calculate but should be considered since they could be a significant source of hazardous air pollutants.
1.2.2.4 Incidental releases of mercury
Mercury is commonly present in gold ore. Although concentrations vary substantially, even within a specific ore deposit, mercury is found in gold ore and associated waste materials. If the content of mercury in a gold ore is 10 mg/ kg, and one million tons of ore is processed at a particular mine (not unusual concentrations), 10 tons of mercury are potentially released to the environment. This is a major source of mercury and should be controlled.
In some gold mining projects, gold-containing ore is crushed and then, if necessary, heated and oxidized in roasters or autoclaves to remove sulfur and carbonaceous material that affects gold recovery. Mercury that is present in the ore is vaporized, particularly in roasters, which are some of the largest sources of mercury emitted to the atmosphere.
Following roasting or autoclaving, the ore is mixed with water and reacted with a cyanide leach solution, where gold and mercury are dissolved and solids removed via filtration. The purified solution is sent to an electrowinning process, where the gold is recovered. In this process, mercury must also be recovered and collected. If not collected by air pollution control devices, this mercury could be released to the atmosphere and impact the environment and public health.
6 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations, Section 70.2. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/ pkg/CFR-2009-title40-vol15/xml/CFR-2009-title40-vol15- part70.xml
Volatilization of mercury from active heaps and tailings facilities has recently been identified as another substantial source of mercury emitted to the atmosphere. This process should be assessed and controlled. Overall, mercury present in gold ore may be released to the land (in disposed air pollution control wastes and spent ore tailings), to the air (not removed by air pollution control devices, or from tailings or heaps), or in the gold product (i.e., as an impurity).
1.2.2.5 Noise and vibration
Noise pollution associated with mining may include noise from vehicle engines, loading and unloading of rock into steel dumpers, chutes, power generation, and other sources. Cumulative impacts of shoveling, ripping, drilling, blasting, transport, crushing, grinding, and stock-piling can significantly affect wildlife and nearby residents.
Vibrations are associated with many types of equipment used in mining operations, but blasting is considered the major source. Vibration has affected the stability of infrastructures, buildings, and homes of people living near large-scale open-pit mining operations. According to a study commissioned by the European Union in 2000:
“Shocks and vibrations as a result of blasting in connection with mining can lead to noise, dust and collapse of structures in surrounding inhabited areas. The animal life, on which the local population may depend, might also be disturbed.”^7
1.2.3 Impacts of mining projects
on wildlife
Wildlife is a broad term that refers to all plants and any animals (or other organisms) that are not domesticated. Mining affects the environment and associated biota through the removal of vegetation and topsoil, the displacement of fauna, the release of pollutants, and the generation of noise. 7 MINEO Consortium (2000) “Review of potential envi- ronmental and social impact of mining” http://www2.brgm.fr/ mineo/UserNeed/IMPACTS.pdf
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as fill materials, ornamental landscaping, or soil supplements.”^8
1.2.5 Impacts of mining projects
on social values
The social impacts of large-scale mining projects are controversial and complex. Mineral development can create wealth, but it can also cause considerable disruption. Mining projects may create jobs, roads, schools, and increase the demands of goods and services in remote and impoverished areas, but the benefits and costs may be unevenly shared. If communities feel they are being unfairly treated or inadequately compensated, mining projects can lead to social tension and violent conflict.
EIAs can underestimate or even ignore the impacts of mining projects on local people. Communities feel particularly vulnerable when linkages with authorities and other sectors of the economy are weak, or when environmental impacts of mining (soil, ai, and water pollution) affect the subsistence and livelihood of local people.
Power differentials can leave a sense of helplessness when communities confront the potential for change induced by large and powerful companies. The EIA process should enforce mechanisms that enable local communities to play effective roles in decision- making. Mineral activities must ensure that the basic rights of the individual and communities affected are upheld and not infringed upon. These must include the right to control and use land; the right to clean water, a safe environment, and livelihood; the right to be free from intimidation and violence; and the right to be fairly compensated for loss.
1.2.5.1 Human displacement and resettlement
According to the International Institute for Environment and Development:
8 Ibid.
“The displacement of settled communities is a significant cause of resentment and conflict associated with large-scale mineral development. Entire communities may be uprooted and forced to shift elsewhere, often into purpose-built settlements not necessarily of their own choosing. Besides losing their homes, communities may also lose their land, and thus their livelihoods. Community institutions and power relations may also be disrupted. Displaced communities are often settled in areas without adequate resources or are left near the mine, where they may bear the brunt of pollution and contamination. Forced resettlement can be particularly disastrous for indigenous communities who have strong cultural and spiritual ties to the lands of their ancestors and who may find it difficult to survive when these are broken.” 9
1.2.5.2 Impacts of migration
According to the International Institute for Environment and Development:
“One of the most significant impacts of mining activity is the migration of people into a mine area, particularly in remote parts of developing countries where the mine represents the single most important economic activity. For example, at the Grasberg mine in Indonesia the local population increased from less than 1000 in 1973 to between 100,000 and 110,000 in
1999. Similarly, the population of the squatter settlements around Porgera in PNG, which opened in 1990, has grown from 4000 to over 18,000.10 This influx of newcomers can have a profound impact on the original inhabitants, and disputes may arise over land and the way benefits have been shared. (These were among the factors that led to violent uprisings at Grasberg in the 1970s and the 1990s.)
“Sudden increases in population can also lead to pressures on land, water, and other 9 International Institute for Environment and Development (2002) “Breaking New Ground: Mining, Minerals and Sustain- able Development: Chapter 9: Local Communities and Mines. Breaking New Grounds.” http://www.iied.org/pubs/pdfs/ G00901.pdf
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resources as well as bringing problems of sanitation and waste disposal.
“Migration effects may extend far beyond the immediate vicinity of the mine. Improved infrastructure can also bring an influx of settlers. For instance, it is estimated that the 80- meter-wide, 890-kilometre-long transportation corridor built from the Atlantic Ocean to the Carajas mine in Brazil created an area of influence of 300,000 square kilometres.” 10
1.2.5.3 Lost access to clean water
According to scientists at the University of Manchester (UK) and the University of Colorado(U.S.):
“Impacts on water quality and quantity are among the most contentious aspects of mining projects. Companies insist that the use of modern technologies will ensure environmentally friendly mining practices. However, evidence of the negative environmental impacts of past mining activity causes local and downstream populations to worry that new mining activities will adversely affect their water supply. ...
“There are major stakes in these conflicts, affecting everything from local livelihood sustainability to the solvency of national governments. Fears for water quantity and quality have triggered numerous and sometimes violent conflicts between miners and communities.” 11
1.2.5.4 Impacts on livelihoods
When mining activities are not adequately managed, the result is degraded soils, water, biodiversity, and forest resources, which are critical to the subsistence of local people. When contamination is not controlled, the cost of the 10 Ibid. 11 Bebbington, A., & Williams, M. (2008) “Water and Mining Conflicts in Peru.” Mountain Research and Develop- ment. 28(3/4):190-195 http://snobear.colorado.edu/Markw/ Research/08_peru.pdf
contamination is transferred to other economic activities, such as agriculture and fishing. The situation is made worse when mining activities take place in areas inhabited by populations historically marginalized, discriminated against, or excluded.
Proponents of mining projects must insure that the basic rights of affected individuals and communities are upheld and not infringed upon. These include rights to control and use land, the right to clean water, and the right to livelihood. Such rights may be enshrined in national law, based on and expressed through a range of international human rights instruments and agreements. All groups are equal under the law, and the interests of the most vulnerable groups (low-income and marginalized) need to be identified and protected.
1.2.5.5 Impacts on public health
EIAs of mining projects often underestimate the potential health risks of mining projects. Hazardous substances and wastes in water, air, and soil can have serious, negative impacts on public health. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a “state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” 12
The term ‘hazardous substances’ is broad and includes all substances that can be harmful to people and/or the environment. Because of the quantity, concentration, or physical, chemical or infectious characteristics, hazardous substances may (1) cause or contribute to an increase of mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or incapacitating illness; or (2) pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwise managed.
12 World Health Organization. 1946. Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization. Official Records of the World Health Organization No. 2, p. 100.
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production, including mining. This assessment found that Life Cycle greenhouse gas emissions from copper and nickel production range from 3.3 kilograms (kg) of CO 2 per kg of metal for copper produced by smelting to 16.1 kg of CO (^2) per kg of metal for nickel produced by pressure acid leaching followed by solvent extraction and
electrowinning.^13 The bottom line is that metal mining generates more than 1 kg of greenhouse gas for every 1 kg of metal that is produced, and this does not take into account lost carbon uptake of cleared forests. 13 T. E. Norgate and W. J. Rankin (2000) “Life Cycle Assess- ment of Copper and Nickel Production, Published in Proceedings, Minprex 2000, International Conference on Minerals Processing and Extractive Metallurgy, pp133-138. http://www.minerals.csiro. au/sd/CSIRO_Paper_LCA_CuNi.htm
