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2. Sociological Research Methods
Debunking - the unmasking of fallacies (false or mistaken ideas or opinions) in the everyday and official interpretations of society Normative Approach - uses religion, customs, habits, traditions, and law to answer important questions. It is based on strong beliefs about what is right and wrong and what "ought to be" in society. Issues such as assisted suicide are often answered by the normative approach. Empirical Approach - attempts to answer questions through systematic collection and analysis of data. This approach is referred to as the conventional model, or the "scientific method," and is based on the assumption that knowledge is best gained by direct, systematic observation. Theory - is a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events. A theory attempts to explain why something is the way it is. Research - is the process of systematically collecting information for the purpose of testing an existing theory or generating a new one. Deductive Approach - the researcher begins with a theory and uses research to test the theory. This approach proceeds as follows: (1) theories generate hypotheses, (2) hypotheses lead to observations (data gathering), (3) observations lead to the formation of generalizations, and (4) generalizations are used to support the theory, to suggest modifications to it, or to refute it. Inductive Approach - the researcher collects information or data (facts or evidence) and then generates theories from the analysis of that data. Under the inductive approach, we would proceed as follows: (1) specific observations suggest generalizations, (2) generalizations produce a tentative theory, (3) the theory is tested through the formation of hypotheses, and (4) hypotheses may provide suggestions for additional observations. Quantitative Research - he goal is scientific objectivity, and the focus is on data that can be measured numerically. Quantitative research typically emphasizes complex statistical techniques. Qualitative Research - interpretive description (words) rather than statistics (numbers) is used to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships. Hypothesis -
in research studies, a tentative statement of the relationship between two or more concepts. Variable - is any concept with measurable traits or characteristics that can change or vary from one person, time, situation, or society to another. Variables are the observable and/or measurable counterparts of concepts. Independent Variable - a variable that is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable. Dependent Variable - a variable that is assumed to depend on or be caused by the independent variable(s). Operational Definition - is an explanation of an abstract concept in terms of observable features that are specific enough to measure the variable. For example, suppose that your goal is to earn an A in this course. Your professor may have created an operational definition by defining an A as earning an exam average of 90 percent or above (Babbie, 2013). Multiple Causation - that is, an event occurs as a result of many factors operating in combination. Unit of Analysis - is what or whom is being studied. In social science research, individuals are the most typical unit of analysis. Social groups (such as families, cities, or geographic regions), organizations (such as clubs, labor unions, or political parties), and social artifacts (such as books, paintings, or weddings) may also be units of analysis. Time Frame of Study - cross-sectional or longitudinal. Cross-Sectional Studies - are based on observations that take place at a single point in time; these studies focus on behavior or responses at a specific moment. Longitudinal Studies - are concerned with what is happening over a period of time or at several different points in time; they focus on processes and social change. Some longitudinal studies are designed to examine the same set of people each time, whereas others look at trends within a general population. Population - persons about whom we want to be able to draw conclusions. Random Sampling - a study approach in which every member of an entire population being studied has the same chance of being selected. Probability Sampling -
Multivariate Analysis - research involving more than two independent variables. Secondary Analysis - a research method in which researchers use existing material and analyze data that were originally collected by others. Secondary analysis is referred to as unobtrusive research because it has no impact on the people being studied. Raw Data - (also known as primary data) is a term for data collected from a source. Raw data has not been subjected to processing or any other manipulation. Aggregated Data - are data combined from several measurements. When data are aggregated, groups of observations are replaced with summary statistics based on those observations. K. D. Breault (1986) - analyzed secondary data collected by government agencies to test Durkheim's hypothesis that religion and social integration provide protection from suicide. Using suicide as the dependent variable and church membership, divorce, unemployment, and female labor- force participation as several of his independent variables, Breault performed a series of sophisticated statistical analyses and concluded that the data supported Durkheim's views on social integration and his theory of egoistic suicide. Content Analysis - the systematic examination of cultural artifacts or various forms of communication to extract thematic data and draw conclusions about social life. Cultural Artifacts - are products of individual activity, social organizations, technology, and cultural patterns. Among the materials studied are written records (such as diaries, love letters, poems, books, and graffiti), narratives and visual texts (such as movies, television programs, websites, advertisements, and greeting cards), and material culture (such as music, art, and even garbage). Field Research - the study of social life in its natural setting: observing and interviewing people where they live, work, and play. Qualitative Data - Data that approximates or characterizes but does not measure the attributes, characteristics, properties, etc., of a thing or phenomenon. Qualitative data describes whereas quantitative data defines. Participant Observation - a research method in which researchers collect systematic observations while being part of the activities of the group being studied. Steve Taylor (1982) -
engaged in participant observation at a coroner's office over a six-month period to learn more about how coroners make a ruling of "suicide" in connection with a death and to analyze what (if any) effect such a ruling has on the accuracy of official suicide statistics. Case Study - is a research method involving an up-close, in-depth, and detailed examination of a subject of study (the case), as well as its related contextual conditions. Although no single definition of the case study exists, case study research has long had a prominent place in many disciplines and professions, ranging from psychology, anthropology, sociology, and political science to education, clinical science, social work, and administrative science. Collective Case Study - involves more than one case, which may or may not be physically colocated with other cases. A collective case study may be conducted at one site (e.g., a school, hospital, or university) by examining a number of different departments or other units at that one site. Each unit is studied as part of a collection, regardless of whether the units themselves are located at single or multiple sites. The term collective case study is sometimes referred to as multi-site case study or multi-site study. Ethnography - a detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people by researchers who may live with that group over a period of years. Robert Lynd (1892 -1970) and Helen Lynd (1896-1982) - lived in Muncie, Indiana, for a number of years and conducted ethnographic research on the daily lives of residents and the composition of the local power structure. The Lynds' study concluded that people in Muncie had strong beliefs about the importance of religion, hard work, self-reliance, and civic pride; that one dominant family "ruled" the city; and that a working class emerged in the community when companies opened factories in Muncie. Unstructured Interview - an extended, open-ended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee. This type of interview is referred to as unstructured because few predetermined or standardized procedures are established for conducting it. Because many decisions have to be made during the interview, this approach requires that the researcher have a high level of skill in interviewing and extensive knowledge regarding the interview topic. Unstructured interviews are essentially conversations in which interviewers establish the general direction by asking open-ended questions, to which interviewees may respond flexibly, and then interviewers may "shift gears" to pursue specific topics raised by interviewees. Grounded Theory - was developed by sociologists Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss to describe this inductive method of theory construction. Barney Glaser (1930) - is an American sociologist and one of the founders of the grounded theory methodology. Anselm Strauss (1916-1996) -
- Researchers must acknowledge research collaboration and assistance they receive from others and disclose all sources of financial support. William Zellner (1978) - wanted to look at fatal single-occupant automobile accidents to determine whether some drivers were actually committing suicide. To examine this issue further, he sought to interview the family, friends, and acquaintances of persons killed in single-car crashes to determine whether the deaths were possibly intentional. To recruit respondents, Zellner told them that he hoped the research would reduce the number of automobile accidents in the future. Laud Humphreys (1970) - who looked at homosexual conduct for his doctoral dissertation. Humphreys chose to focus on homosexual acts between strangers in the public restrooms (referred to as "tearooms") of city parks. Before beginning his observations, Humphreys did not ask his subjects' permission or inform them that they were being studied. Instead, he showed up at public restrooms offering to be the lookout for police while others engaged in homosexual acts as he systematically recorded the various encounters that took place. To learn more about their everyday lives away from this setting, Humphreys tracked down their names and addresses from their auto license numbers and invited them to participate in a medical survey. Because he did not want the men to recognize him, he wore various disguises and drove a different car to their homes. From these interviews he collected personal information and learned that most of the men were married and lived very conventional lives apart from these closeted encounters with gay men in public restrooms.
