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Anatomy and Physiology (A&P) 319 Exam 1 Study Guide: TAMU COHN, Exams of Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Waldorf University Animal Anatomy and Physiology

This study guide provides a comprehensive overview of key concepts in anatomy and physiology (a&p) 319, specifically focusing on the first exam. It covers fundamental definitions, relationships between anatomy and physiology, levels of organization in the human body, and an introduction to major organ systems. The guide includes questions and answers, making it a valuable resource for students preparing for their exam.

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A&P 319 Exam 1 TAMU COHN Study Guide |

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What is anatomy? - ✔✔

- How big something is' the geometry and shape, how it connects to the rest of the body

- STRUCTURE: can be physically described

- Size, shape, location, made of a group of substructures, links to other structures

What is physiology? - ✔✔The scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things

FUNCTION: how things work

How are A&P linked? - ✔✔

-Form follows function; processes, structures and functions are all interwoven

-Structure implies function

-Physiology is explainable only in terms of the underlying anatomy

-You can't FUNCTION without STRUCTURE, and vise versa. It is impossible to understand physiology

without developing an understanding of anatomy; physiology is explainable only in terms of the

underlying anatomy.

Can A&P be studied together or separately? - ✔✔-They can be studied together or separately, but there

is a greater benefit in studying them together

-Regionally, Systemically

Regional anatomy (Regionally) - ✔✔The body is studied area by area, and all systems within the area are

studied simultaneously

Systemic anatomy (Systemically) - ✔✔the body is studied system by system. A system is a group of

structures that have one or more common functions (cardiovascular system, digestive system, etc.); how

we study anatomy

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A&P 319 Exam 1 TAMU COHN Study Guide |

100% Correct Answers | Verified | Latest

2024 Version

What is anatomy? - ✔✔

How big something is' the geometry and shape, how it connects to the rest of the body
STRUCTURE: can be physically described
Size, shape, location, made of a group of substructures, links to other structures What is physiology? - ✔✔The scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things FUNCTION: how things work How are A&P linked? - ✔✔
Form follows function; processes, structures and functions are all interwoven
Structure implies function
Physiology is explainable only in terms of the underlying anatomy
You can't FUNCTION without STRUCTURE, and vise versa. It is impossible to understand physiology without developing an understanding of anatomy; physiology is explainable only in terms of the underlying anatomy. Can A&P be studied together or separately? - ✔✔-They can be studied together or separately, but there is a greater benefit in studying them together
Regionally, Systemically Regional anatomy (Regionally) - ✔✔The body is studied area by area, and all systems within the area are studied simultaneously Systemic anatomy (Systemically) - ✔✔the body is studied system by system. A system is a group of structures that have one or more common functions (cardiovascular system, digestive system, etc.); how we study anatomy

What are the advantages and disadvantages to A&P? - ✔✔Advantage of studying A&P together

Helps tie everything together
The information makes the most sense this way
Easier in the sense that they are interwoven so the material is easier to grasp when taught this way Disadvantage of studying A&P together
Loads of information
Details may be missed Which is predominate between regionally/ systemically in BIOL 319? Any exceptions? - ✔✔Systemic predominates in Biol 319 Exceptions - going from cranium to study nerves and jumping to skeleton to study the system (regional) Explain the word Integrative in the titles of BIOL 319 / 320. - ✔✔Integrative means that various aspects of both anatomy and physiology are linked/coordinated together
combining form and function to create a whole Histology - ✔✔examines tissues, subcomponent of organs, which are composed of cells and the materials surrounding them; microscopic study of tissues (groups of similar cells) Gross anatomy - ✔✔study of structures that can be viewed without a microscope; can be approached systemically or regionally; can be viewed by the naked eye; "large" Surface anatomy - ✔✔Looking at the exterior of the body to visualize structures deeper inside the body Cell physiology - ✔✔processes occurring in cells Systemic physiology - ✔✔Function of organ systems Neurophysiology - ✔✔Nervous system

What piece of equipment is usually necessary for studying the detailed structure of cellular organelles? Why? - ✔✔Electronic microscope because it is a stronger microscope with more resolving power that can observe unique details What is the difference between tissues and organs? - ✔✔- A tissue is composed of a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them- these surrounding materials determine the functions of the tissue.

Organs are made of tissues. An organ is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions. In the broadest categories, how many tissue types are there and what are they called? - ✔✔There are four tissue types:
epithelial (Skin and everywhere in body-lines cavities and surfaces of blood vessels and organs throughout the body),
nervous (nerves, brain, spinal cord),
muscle (smooth, skeletal, cardiac)
connective (connects tissues and organs) What is the definition of an organ? - ✔✔Organ is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more similar functions Knowing the definition of an organ, how is the urinary bladder an example? - ✔✔-The urinary bladder contains multiple types of tissues (3 out of the 4) that function together for a specific purpose→ collects urine from the kidneys
Contains epithelial, connective, and smooth muscle tissue What are the major anatomical/ physiological systems? - ✔✔-Cardiovascular, Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, Integumentary, Endocrine(Glands), Lymphatic, Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary (Renal-kidney), and Reproductive systems
11 total Cardiovascular system - ✔✔- Job: Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body; - - plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature

Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood
Central pump: the heart Cardiac - ✔✔Pertaining to the heart About how many cells are there in a human body that need to be served by capillaries? - ✔✔75 trillion cells in human body The circulatory system contains a fluid containing water, soluble factors and cells called___________ ((I'm thinking of three large categories of cells )under pressure from a pump called the _______ - ✔✔Blood (white blood cells/leukocytes and red blood cells/erythrocytes, platelets); heart What are the two major gases? - ✔✔Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) and Oxygen O Regarding the blood under pressure, it is given as two numbers (eg 120/80). What do these two numbers correspond to? - ✔✔- The top number is systolic pressure and represents the pressure in the arteries when the heart is contracting
The bottom number is diastolic pressure and represents the pressure in the arteries when the heart is in a relaxed state What does SYSTOLIC mean in regards to blood pressure? - ✔✔Represents pressure in arteries when the heart is contracting What does DIASTOLIC mean in regards to blood pressure? - ✔✔Represents pressure in arteries when the heart is relaxing What are the units of pressure that are conveniently used? - ✔✔mmHg (millimeters of mercury) Know, briefly what soluble factors are commonly transported in the blood besides the soluble gases? - ✔✔Nutrients
Travel through the blood

Muscular movement is primarily involuntary (digestion), while skeletal movement is voluntary (lifting a book). -- The muscles produce the force, the skeletal muscle is what makes it rigid and concrete. Muscles need bones to pull against.
Called the Musculoskeletal system for a reason How does the skeletal system play a major role in support, movement and protection. - ✔✔-- Support: Serves as rigid structure for muscle to pull against→ Muscles attach either directly to the bones (mostly), or indirectly attach to bone. Posture- being able to sit up straight when you are sitting down instead of collapsing. -- EXECUTE MOVEMENT -- Protection: The Central Nervous System is well protected by vertebrae and skull ex Ribcage-protects the lungs and heart Name some organs that the skeleton protects. - ✔✔- Heart, lungs, brain (central nervous system), and spinal cord
the ribs & sternum protect heart & lungs
pelvic bones protect organs in pelvic cavity
skull protects brain
Skull and vertebrae protect CNS How (and for what) is the skeleton system a "storage organ" system? - ✔✔- Stores (Calcium) Ca2+ and (Phosphate) PO43- (Electrolytes) they are unique to bone and are a good shield to protect- hardness.
Storage to be taken out for a constant in blood levels
Bone marrow inside cavity of bones is the "wellspring" of all blood cells Why are calcium and phosphate so important to physiology? - ✔✔together: Makes the bone hard

individual:

Phosphate: role in DNA/RNA, Anion
Calcium: Cation, without it blood cant clot, the nervous system wont work well, keystone for muscle contraction and second messenger that regulates physiology Scafolding - ✔✔What something hangs off of or attaches to What does scaffolding mean and how does it apply to the skeleton? - ✔✔Scaffolding - what something hangs off of or attaches to
The skeleton is a scaffolding for other muscles, skin, and organs of the body
Muscles pull against the rigid scaffolding provided by the bones Muscular system - ✔✔- movement of bones and organs
CONTROL MOVEMENT
Produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces body heat What does Muscular System Consist of? - ✔✔Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons What are three types of muscle? - ✔✔Cardiac, smooth, skeletal Smooth Muscle - ✔✔- lines the inside of hollow organs & is not under conscious control
involuntary

What are the other important functions of skeletal muscle besides active movement? - ✔✔Posture, shivering (thermoregulation), respiratory functions, facial expressions Nervous system - ✔✔- cellular communication and control;

central nervous system (12 pairs of cranial nerves)
peripheral nervous system (31 pairs of nerves from the spinal cord)
A major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions What is Nervous system consist of - ✔✔Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors Is Nervous System " Control and Command" - ✔✔- sending and receiving information throughout the body. The response is fast due to impulses sent along axons to receiving dendrites.
Then PNS sends messages to the brain (temperature of the body, etc.) along AFFERENT nerve, which then makes the decision to turn up or down the thermostat of the body, then serves as the control system sending it through the body to EFFERENT complete the command along an Nerve Define Peripheral Nervous System - ✔✔- Receives information from sensory organs and relays it back to the brain
Relays CNS decision to rest of the body
31 pairs of spinal nerves come off of spinal cord
12 pairs of cranial nerves exit the brain (involved in above-neck sensory)
Cannot make own decisions→ unless you are talking about reflexes Where is PNS found? - ✔✔- Anything that exists outside the CNS
All nerves not inside of the flat bones of the skull and the vertebrae
31 pairs of spinal nerves
12 pairs of cranial nerves

Define Central Nervous System - ✔✔- Executor of the body

Command and control system
Fast impulses and decision making
Brain and spinal cord Where is CNS found? - ✔✔- Only brain and spinal cord - attached at the base of the brain.
Spinal cord proper goes about halfway down the spine, stops at belly button (belt line) then branches
Encased inside the Vertebrae and Skull Which is mainly in charge with integrating information, making decisions, and initiating commands to muscles and or glands? - ✔✔CNS Which is largely encapsulated within a skeletal shield? - ✔✔CNS Is there another system that is a "communication and control system"? - ✔✔Endocrine System (through the use of hormones and negative feedback loops, much slower - can take up to months) How fast is the nervous system at communication and control (What unit of time is typically used to measure nervous system responses?) - ✔✔Extremely quick relative to other body responses. Defined in milliseconds. (1/1000 of a second). How many cranial nerves are there and what defines a cranial nerve? - ✔✔- Cranial nerves: nerves that originate from a nucleus within the brain; there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
EXCEPTION: Vagus nerve→ wanders literally everywhere; it is a part of the involuntary nervous system & commands unconscious body procedures (keeping the heart rate constant and controlling food digestion) How many spinal nerves are there and what defines a spinal nerve? - ✔✔There are 31 pairs of nerves formed by the joining of the dorsal and ventral roots that arise from the spinal cord. "Rope of nervous tissue outside CNS."

What fundamental characteristic of skin makes it a pillar in regulating water levels in the body? - ✔✔- Ions cannot move through the skin out, or into the skin from the outside; the multiple cell layers of the epidermis resists abrasion on the skin's surface to reduce water loss

Glycolipids-block water from getting in or out of the skin
Hydroscopic - absorbs and holds on to water.
Collagen fibers in the dermis attract water and hold on to it. Example of Homeostasis - ✔✔- as mammals, our skin has the ability to preserve water in order to keep the necessary balance;
exception: controlled loss of water through evaporative cooling What is a Hormone? - ✔✔An organic molecule that is synthesized and secreted by endocrine tissues into the blood that acts on a target tissue to produce a specific response. Describe the Endocrine system - ✔✔- produces hormones, chemical communication and control
A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other functions Glands have no ducts What does Endocrine System Consist of? - ✔✔Consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones into the bloodstream What is the defining physiological characteristic of all endocrine glands? - ✔✔- Ductless; secretes hormones directly into the blood; regulates function of other tissues Remember:

endocrine=ductless and secretes hormones while
exocrine= has ducts and no hormone secretion
Individual endocrine gland definition: collection of organs that produce more than one hormone Classical Definition - ✔✔- A hormone is always and only produced by an endocrine gland.
A chemical message (almost always organic molecule) made and released by an endocrine gland and released into the blood then binds with a receptor of a cell and change its physiology (target cell)
Into blood, body has access, hormone travels and binds to receptors to change physiology of the cell Is the endocrine system an example of a "command (communication) and control" system. If so, how so?
✔✔- Yes-command and control system which releases chemicals that go out and control the physiology of target cells, but it is much slower than the nervous system, which is good because you wouldn't want hormonal changes to happen instantly.
If the cell has a receptor with the hormone to bind to it- this is the first step in initiating a cascade inside the target cell
Regulates blood sugar based on the amount of insulin in the body
Nervous also plays role in this How do the Nervous and Endocrine Systems compare and contrast in terms of importance? - ✔✔- Nervous system is used in quick situations- reflex; needed in do or die-milliseconds
Endocrine can be used more at leisure for development and growth; develop time-seconds, days, weeks, months(pregnancy). Broader range.
- Endocrine can also be used in "do or die" situation (release of adrenaline by adrenal gland)

Testes - ✔✔produce testosterone and sperm. Ovaries - ✔✔produce estrogen and egg. What does pituitary gland produce? - ✔✔hormones turn on hormones of the adrenal glands. What does Adrenal gland produce? - ✔✔releases stress regulator hormones (adrenaline). What does thyroid gland produce? - ✔✔activated by the pituitary gland and produces thyroid hormone which regulates metabolism. Which is the master gland and why is it called that? (Endocrine System) - ✔✔Pituitary gland because it controls all other endocrine glands The master gland dangles from the base of the brain What example of a hormone did I mention in class and know its significance to the extent described in class (Hint: Diabetes) - ✔✔Insulin; produced by the pancreas and important in regulating the metabolism of carbohydrates. Regulated through a negative feedback loop system Endocrine System Sidenote - ✔✔One important chemical involved in fluid balance is called antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH is produced by the pituitary, a small gland located at the base of the brain. In a healthy person, and under normal conditions, ADH is continuously released. ADH influences the amount of fluid that the kidneys reabsorb into the circulatory system and the amount of fluid that the kidneys pass out of the body in the form of urine. Does the kidney always release the same proportion of water and salt? If not, why not and to the extent discussed in class, how does this occur? - ✔✔No, it depends on the amount of salt present in the body (also depends how much water is in the body)

The greater the salt, the greater water

Kidneys conserve water if it is low
If there is too much water, it releases it until the salt and water ions are at equilibrium
It may also depend on the hormones acting on the kidneys which would change the proportions as well. Describe the Lymphatic system - ✔✔- transport of fats, immune response and regulation of interstitial fluid balance
Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract White blood cells regulate fluids from toxins. White blood cells stationed in lymph nodes. Complex array of branching tubes, but doesn't carry contents under pressure. Has no pump. What does Lymphatic System Consist of? - ✔✔Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs How does the lymphatics system compare to the cardiovascular system. - ✔✔- Transports fluids throughout the body similar to how the cardiovascular system transports blood
It is DIFFERENT though because there is no central pump, rather the fluids are facilitated by daily movements of the skeletal system so it is very low pressure
Moved through system by peristalsis (muscular contractions) Specifically compare and contrast the two systems in terms of : 1 the fluid circulated; 2 the speed and pressure of the circulations. - ✔✔Lymphatic Fluid- Lymph transports fats and interstitial fluid (extracellular fluid) Lymphatic Speed/Pressure- Low pressure, moved by skeletal muscle contractions (no pump), daily movements.

What type of cells colonize lymphatic tissue and function as soldiers in your defense? - ✔✔White blood cells called leukocytes. Also known as lymphocytes. Why does the type of cells colonized in lymphatic tissues make sense in terms of swollen lymph nodes often observed in the vicinity of an infection? - ✔✔- Lymphatic vessels bring lymph fluid to the lymph nodes and the fluid is filtered for harmful substances. If the lymph nodes are swollen you may be sick.

There is more fluid and white blood cells congregating at the lymph nodes to try to fight the infection. What is the relationship between the nodes and the vessels? - ✔✔- The fluids traveling through the circulatory system must always pass through the lymph nodes from the vessels to be "checked" for infectious materials.
Lymph nodes are considered "military bases" of your immune system
Vessels are highway where fluid travels to get to next lymph node? Yes. Where do all of the body's blood cells originate? Is this where they stay? Explain. - ✔✔- All blood cells are born in the bone marrow
They originate and differentiate in the bone marrow but, they then move through to body
Red blood cells never leave the cardiovascular system.
T-Cells (white blood cells) mature in the Thymus, but born in the bone marrow. Lymph - ✔✔the fluid throughout the lymphatic system; able to defy gravity by using the movement of our muscles; moves throughout body in one direction, unidirectional, moves through everyday movements Respiratory system - ✔✔- gas exchange, electrolyte/pH balance

Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulates blood pH What does respiratory system consist of? - ✔✔Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages Explain the following: The lungs are inflatable sacs each made of the 300-400 million tiny sacs. - ✔✔- Alveoli absorb the oxygen that is brought into the lungs and releases carbon dioxide in the process. Though the sacs may be small, they increase the surface area and therefore help the organism take in more oxygen by diffusion
Lungs are highly porous structures
Allows very fast gas exchange What are these tiny sacs called in the singular and plural? - ✔✔Alveoli (plural); alveolus (singular) What gases are exchanged in the lung? - ✔✔O2 (in), CO2 (out-waste) In what direction does the exchange take place and why is this exchange so important? - ✔✔Oxygen from the air is exchanged in the alveoli for CO2. The exchange is vitally important for life. Oxygen is needed for many physiological processes What physiological capability is amplified by having the anatomical characteristic of having hundreds of millions of sacs inside each "lung sac"? - ✔✔They increase the surface area and in turn, more oxygen per second can be taken up by the lungs and to the bloodstream BY DIFFUSION. Alveoli are highly vascular, they "feed" our cells Can the activity of the respiratory system affect blood pH? - ✔✔- Blood PH is around 7.4ish
Rapid breathing = decreases CO2 levels in blood = Higher pH

Anatomy and Physiology (A&P) 319 Exam 1 Study Guide: TAMU COHN, Exams of Animal Anatomy and Physiology

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A&P 319 Exam 1 TAMU COHN Study Guide |

100% Correct Answers | Verified | Latest

2024 Version