Download Adolescent developmental psychology (basics) and more Summaries Psychology in PDF only on Docsity!
● PUBERTY
A brain-neuroendocrine process occurring primarily in early adolescence that provides stimulation for the rapid physical changes that accompany this period of development.
GROWTH SPURT
Growth slows throughout childhood, & then puberty brings forth the most rapid increases in growth since infancy. ● The growth spurt associated with puberty occurs approximately two years earlier for girls than for boys. ● Growth spurt- Girls 9 years; boys 11 years ● Increase in height per year- 3½ for girls & 4 for boys ● Growth spurt begins before menarche & ends earlier for girls. The growth spurt begins later & ends later for boys. ● At the beginning of adolescence, girls tend to be as tall as or taller than boys of their age, but most boys have caught up with them, or in many cases even surpassed them in height by the end of the middle school years. ● The rate at which adolescents gain weight follows approximately the same developmental timetable as the rate at which they gain height. ● In addition, puberty brings changes in hip & shoulder width.
SEXUAL MATURATION
● Three of the most noticeable signs of sexual maturation in boys are penis elongation, testes development, & growth of facial hair. ● Two of the most noticeable aspects of female pubertal change are pubic hair & breast development. ● Order of changes- breast development occurs first, followed by the appearance of pubic hair. Later, hair appears in the armpits. As these changes occur, the female grows in height, & her hips become wider than her shoulders. Her first menstruation (menarche) occurs rather late in the pubertal cycle. ● Precocious puberty is the term used to describe the very early onset & rapid progression of puberty. usually diagnosed when pubertal onset occurs before 8 years of age in girls & before 9 years of age in boys.
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS
BODY IMAGE
Preoccupation with one’s body image is strong throughout adolescence, but it is especially acute during puberty. GENDER DIFFERENCES ● Gender differences characterise adolescents’ perceptions of their bodies. In general, throughout puberty girls are less
happy with their bodies & have more negative body images than do. ● may be due to media portrayals of the attractiveness of being thin & the increase in body fat in girls during puberty. ● As they go through puberty- girls become more dissatisfied due to weight where boys become more satisfied due to muscles. ● Recent study- boys’ & girls’ body images became more positive as they moved from the beginning to the end of adolescence. ● In a study- school girls POV- worst things about being a girl- biology of being female- childbirth, PMS, periods, breast cancer. ● Best thing about girl- appearance. ● Middle school boys POV- worst things about being a guy- aspects of discipline- getting into trouble, being blamed more than girls. ● Best thing about boy- playing sports. BODY ART ● Most youth engage in body modifications to be different, to stamp their identity as unique. ● Some studies- tattoos & body piercings are markers for risk taking in adolescence. ● Other researchers- body art used to express individuality & self expression, rather than rebellion.
HORMONES & BEHAVIOUR
● Hormonal factors are thought to account for at least part of the increase in negative emotions that characterise adolescents. ● In boys- high level of androgens ● In girls- high level of adrenal androgens ● However, hormonal factors alone are not responsible for adolescent behaviour. ● a link with risk-taking behaviour depended on the quality of parent-adolescent relations. ● When relationship quality decreased, testosterone-linked risk-taking behaviour & symptoms of depression increased. ● Hormones do not function independently; hormonal activity is influenced by many environmental factors;
- Stress
- Eating patterns
- Sexual activity
- Depression
- Parent adolescent relations
EARLY & LATE MATURATION
● early-maturing boys perceived themselves more positively & more successful peer relations than late-maturing boys. The findings for early-maturing girls were similar but not as strong as for boys. ● An increasing number of researchers have found that early maturation increases girls’ vulnerability to a number of problems. ● More likely to have problems like
- Smoking, drinking & eating disorder.
- Delinquency, dating & early sexual acts.
- Independence struggle & older frnds.
- Less likely to graduate & marry early. ● Cognitive immaturity & early physical development- lured into problems without realising long term consequences.
Improves the quality of life, both in adolescence & adulthood.
DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES
● Researchers have found that individuals become less active as they reach & progress through adolescence. ● A national study- adolescent boys were much more likely to engage in 60 minutes or more of vigorous exercise per day than were girls. ● Another study- adolescents were more likely to engage in regular exercise when they wanted to present a positive body image to their friends & when exercise was important to their parents.
POSITIVE BENEFITS OF EXERCISE
● Exercise is linked with number of positive outcomes like- weight status, reduced triglyceride levels, lower blood pressure, & a lower incidence of type 2 diabetes. ● Students who engaged in higher levels of exercise had lower levels of alcohol, cigarette, & marijuana use. ● Recent study- a daily morning running program for three weeks improved the sleep quality, mood, & concentration of adolescents. ● 1 study- physical fitness in adolescence was linked to physical fitness in adulthood. ● A possibility- physical exercise- act as a buffer against the stress adolescents experience & improve their mental health & life satisfaction. ● lowered depression; higher self-esteem; adolescent girls improved their self-image; higher grade-point averages; less drug use; got along better with their parents
ROLES & INFLUENCES
FAMILY
● Children & adolescents benefit when parents engage in regular exercise & are physically fit. ● Children whose parents got them involved in regular exercise & sports during the elementary school years are likely to continue engaging in exercise on a regular basis as adolescents. PEERS Below linked to adolescent physical activity- -PEER & FRIEND SUPPORT- friends support mattered more than parents or siblings. -PEER & FRIEND PRESENCE- Adolescent almost overweight boys- less active than thin boys when alone but, as active as thin boys when a peer was present. -FRIENDSHIP QUALITY & ACCEPTANCE- higher levels linked to continued participation in group sports.
-PEER CROWD AFFILIATION- adolescents associated with “jocks” & “populars” exercised more.
SCHOOLS
● Many schools fail to provide physical education classes on a daily basis. ● Males are more likely to participate at physical education classes than females. ● 10th graders were most likely to regularly take a PE classes; the least likely were 11th graders & 12th graders. ● Research studies have found positive benefits like cardiovascular fitness & better lifestyle activity from programs designed to improve the physical fitness of students.
SCREEN BASED ACTIVITY
● Screen based activities are associated with lower levels of physical fitness in adolescence. ● Research review- screen-based activity is linked to a number of adolescent health problems like- overweight, having sleep problems, being depressed, & having lower levels of physical activity/fitness & psychological well-being.
SPORTS
● Can have both positive & negative influences on adolescent development. ● Many sports activities can improve adolescents’ physical health & well-being, self-confidence, motivation to excel, & ability to work with others. ● Adolescents who spend enough time in sports- less likely than others to engage in risk-taking behaviours such as using drugs. ● Adolescents who participated in sports- academic competence, confidence, character, caring, & social connection. ● Negative effects & outcomes- the pressure to achieve & win, physical injuries; distraction from academic work; & unrealistic expectations for success as an athlete. ● Another problem- the use of performance-enhancing drugs, such as steroids, by adolescent athletes. ● Female athlete triad which involves a combination of disordered eating (weight loss), amenorrhea (absent or irregular menstrual periods), & osteoporosis (thinning & weakening of bones).
- Early FOT- flights of fantasy may submerge reality & the world is perceived subjectively & idealistically. Assimilation is the dominant process in this subperiod.
- Late FOT- Through Accommodation, adolescents begin to adjust to the upheaval they have experienced. Late formal thought may appear in the middle adolescent years. ● Assimilation characterises early FOT; Accommodation late FOT. ● Concluded that formal operational thought is not com- pletely achieved until later in adolescence, between approximately 15 & 20 years of age. ● Some young adolescents are formal operational thinkers; others are not. In fact, many college students & adults do not think in formal operational ways.
METACOGNITION
Cognition about cognition, or “knowing about knowing”
ERIKSON’S STAGE OF IDENTITY
VS ROLE CONFUSION
Identity is who a person believes she or he is, representing a synthesis & integration of self-understanding.. ● identity versus identity confusion is the fifth developmental stage in the human life span & it occurs during the adolescent years. ● Conceptualization of metacognition includes several dimensions of executive function, such as planning, evaluation & self-regulation. ● Metacognition is increasingly recognized as a very important cognitive skill not only in adolescence but also in emerging adulthood. ● Increased metacognitive ability results in improved cognitive functioning & learning. ● 12 to 14 years of age, adolescents increas- ingly used metacognitive skills & applied them more effectively in maths & history. ● Importance of metacognitive skills- planning, strategies, & monitoring- for college students’ ability to think critically. ● Metacognitive skills have been taught to students to help them solve problems. ● the students who had received the metacognitive training had better maths achievement & better attitudes toward maths. ● Good thinkers also know when & where to use strategies. Understanding when & where to use strategies often results from monitoring the learning situation. ● At this time, adolescents are faced with deciding who they are, what they are all about, & where they are going in life. ● As part of their identity exploration, adolescents experience apsychosocial moratorium, Erikson’s term for the gap between childhood security & adult autonomy. ● Adolescents who cannot successfully cope with conflicting roles & identities or resolve their identity crisis suffer withIdentity confusion. ● Either they withdraw, isolating themselves from peers & family, or they immerse themselves in the world of peers & lose their identity in the crowd.
MARCIA’S EGO IDENTITY
After analysis of Erikson’s identity development, she concluded identity involves 4 ways of resolving identity crisis. ● Crisis- period of identity development during which the adolescent is choosing among meaningful alternatives. ● Commitment- a personal investment in what an individual is going to do. ● Under Marcia’s terms-
- Identity diffusion- the state adolescents are in when they have not yet experienced an identity crisis & have not made any commitments.
● Self-esteem is the global, evaluative dimension of the self, & also is referred to as self- worth or self-image. ● Self-concept involves domain-specific self-evaluations. ● Susan Harter developed a measure: the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents. ● Self-esteem reflects perceptions that do not always match reality. Thus, high self-esteem may be justified or it might reflect an arrogant, grandiose view of oneself that is not warranted. ● An increasing number of studies document the problems of adolescents who are narcissistic. Narcissism refers to a self-centred & self-concerned approach toward others. ● Controversy characterises the extent to which self-esteem changes during adolescence & whether there are gender differences in self-esteem. ● Researchers have found that self-esteem often drops during & just after developmental transitions, such as going from elementary school to middle or junior high school. ● Some researchers have found that the self-esteem of girls declines in adolescence, especially during early adolescence, although other researchers argue that this decline has been exaggerated & actually is only modest in nature. ● Self-esteem is only moderately linked to school success. ● Adolescents with high self-esteem have greater initiative, but this can produce positive or negative outcomes. ● Perceived physical appearance is an especially strong contributor to global self-esteem. ● Peer acceptance also is linked to global self-esteem in adolescence. ● In Coopersmith’s study, children’s self-esteem was associated with such parenting practices as affection & allowing children freedom within well-prescribed limits. ● Peer & friendship relations also are linked with self-esteem. ● Self-esteem is higher in elementary school than in middle or junior high school. For most adolescents, low self- esteem results in only temporary emotional discomfort. ● However, for others, especially when low self-esteem persists, it is linked with depression, anorexia nervosa, delinquency, & even suicide. ● Four ways to increase adolescents’ self-esteem are to (1) identify the causes of low self-esteem & determine which domains of competence are important to the adolescent, (2) provide emotional support & social approval, (3) help the adolescent to achieve success & (4) improve the adolescent’s coping skills.
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed that moral development is based primarily on moral reasoning & unfolds in a series of stages. ● 3 levels of moral development, each of which is characterised by 2 stages. ● A key concept in understanding progression through the levels is that people’s morality becomes more internal or mature.
LEVEL 1: PRE CONVENTIONAL REASONING
Lowest level
- Punishment & Obedience orientation. Moral thinking is often tied to punishment.
- Individualism, instrumental purpose, & exchange. individuals pursue their own interests but also let others do the same.
LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL REASONING
Intermediate level. Individuals abide by certain standards (internal), but they are the standards of others (external). Individuals develop expectations about social roles.
- Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, & interpersonal conformity Individuals value trust, caring, & loyalty to others as a basis of moral judgments.
- Systems morality Moral judgments are based on understanding the social order, law, justice, & duty.
LEVEL 3: POST CONVENTIONAL REASONING
Highest level. The individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a moral code.
- Social contract or utility & individual rights Individuals reason that values, rights, & principles undergird or transcend the law.
- Universal ethical principles The person has developed a moral st&ard based on universal human rights. <age 9, most children reason in pre conventional way early adolescence- reason in more conventional ways. Most adolescents reason- stage 3, with some signs of stages 2 & 4. By early adulthood, few individuals reason in postconventional ways.
emotion feels like from your own experience. ● It means that you know what the other person feel but not necessarily that you agree with them
ATTENTION
● Knowing how other people are reacting, or anticipating how they are likely to react to what you do & say. ● Once you have the ability to sense how others react, you can be more effective in choosing how to deliver a message.
RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT
● Capacity for acting in such a way that one
is able to get desired results from others & reach personal goals.
GENERATION GAP
The differentiation (or gap) of values, attitudes, or behaviours between members of an older generation & a younger generation. ● For example between younger kids & their parents or grandparents The gaps between generations can be considered in two particular ways:
- Comparisons are made at different times between generations at similar ages. Ex: Comparing a parent’s high school experiences relative to his or her child’s high school experiences.
- Examine across groups at the same point in time. Ex: Differences in child beliefs in 1960’s & 1970’s. ● The ability to communicate in a clear & convincing way.
● Being clear means being able to say what
you mean simply, & being able to offer examples. ● Being convincing relies on understanding how people feel & what emotions are important in their decision-making process. ● One must understand how to use emotion to communicate & persuade.
BIRTH COHORTS
● Groups of individuals born within a similar time, typically 10-or 20-year intervals. ● More like born during a particular period of time ● Typically, they have unique experiences that affect their human development in similar ways. ● The greater the degree of social change (i.e., immigration, economic development, political instability), the more unique birth cohorts become. They influence generation gaps in 2 ways
- They emphasise the distinctiveness of different birth cohorts.
- Through shared experiences & memories, members of the same birth cohort form deep bonds with each other.
IMPLICATIONS
- Family level- may increase ambiguity & discord between parents & their children.
- Social level- increased parent-child discord may potentially alienate aged parents from their families.
PARENTING STYLES
Diana Baumrind It is the way a parent uses psychological construct for parenting 2 dimensions- Demandingness & Responsiveness 4 Parenting styles
AUTHORITATIVE PARENTING
● High demandingness, high responsiveness ● Best & mist effective parenting style ● Democratic Parenting Style.
SIBLINGS- INFLUENCE OF FAMILY
SIZE & BIRTH ORDER
Birth order + parenting = behaviour
FIRSTBORN
● Stands in for parents- like mini adults ● Parents give a lot of attention, makes the child to always strive for please them ● Reliable ● Conscientious ● Structured ● Cautious ● Controlling ● Achievers
MIDDLE CHILD
● Feel left out, since they get lesser attention than firstborn & the baby of the family ● People-pleasers ● Somewhat rebellious ● Thrives on friendships ● Has large social circle ● Peacemaker
LAST BORN
● most free-spirited coz parents do not get interfered as much ● Fun-loving ● Uncomplicated ● Manipulative ● Outgoing ● Attention-seeker ● Self-centred
ONLY CHILD
● Unique position without any competition ● Like a super firstborn, with so much attention & not just for sometime but almost forever ● But also burden of all support & expectations
PEER FUNCTIONS
● A social group & a primary group of people who have similar interests, age, background, or social status. ● The members of this group are likely to influence the person’s beliefs & behaviour. ● Adolescents tend to spend more time with their peers & have less adult supervision. ● They have different things to talk to parents & friends ● Less likely to accept those who are different from them
CLIQUES
● Small groups ● Formed by age, gender, race etc. ● Usually same in terms of academics & risk behaviours ● Sometimes advantageous- sense of autonomy, secure social environment etc.
CROWDS
● Larger & not really based on interests ● More important in early adolescence & lesser in late adolescence
POSITIVE ATTRIBUTES
- Serve as a source of information
- Teach gender roles
- Serve as a practising venue to adulthood
- Teach unity & collective behaviour in life
- Identity formation
NEGATIVE ATTRIBUTES
- Future problems
- Risk behaviours
- Aggression & prosocial behaviour
- Sexual promiscuity
PEER PRESSURE
● Where an individual feels indirectly pressured into changing their behaviour to match that of their peers. ● Negatively- taking up smoking or drinking ● Positively- encouraging to study or not to take bad influences ● Mostly in adolescence
FRIENDS
● A relationship of mutual affection between people. ● It is a stronger form of interpersonal bond than an association. ● Children are more positively engaged with friends ● Friends are more likely to negotiate during conflicts & try to preserve relationship ● Characterised more by equality rather than competition or domination ● Friends tend to have similar behavioural attributes & characteristics ● & tend to get more similar through time ● "more giving, sharing, frank, supportive, & spontaneous."
INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY
Technology is increasingly becoming an essential part of our lives, & many young people USING INTERNET & SOCIAL MEDIA FOR ● connect with, comment on & discuss things with others, through social networking, emailing & online messaging ● find, create or share interesting photos, videos & articles ● join or follow interest groups ● play online games ● learn more about topics that interest them ● as a study tool for school. ● Youth activism is youth engagement in community organising for social change. ● Youth participation in social change focuses more on issue-oriented activism than traditional partisan or electoral politics. ● anti-war activism ● anti-crime & government corruption, ● pro-sexual education ● anti-government censorship ● expanded educational access ● public transportation access.
ROLE OF SPIRITUALITY &
RELIGION
BENEFITS OF USING TECH
● easily access information to inform & educate themselves ● maintain & develop supportive relationships ● form their identities (through self-expression, learning & talking) ● promote a sense of belonging & self-esteem through staying connected with friends ● being involved in diverse communities. RISKS OF USING TECH ● Cyberbullying ● Trolling ● Isolation ● Inappropriate material ● Inappropriate relationships ● Religion is an organised set of beliefs, practices, rituals, & symbols that increases an individual’s connection to a sacred or transcendent other (God, higher power, or ulti- mate truth). ● Spirituality involves experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent manner & living in a way that benefits others & society. ● Many children, adolescents, & emerging adults show an interest in religion, & religious institutions are designed to introduce them to religious beliefs. ● In the twenty-first century, a downturn in religious interest among college students has occurred.
● Adolescent girls are more likely to frequently attend religious services, perceive that religion shapes their daily lives, participate in religious youth groups, pray more alone, & feel closer to God.
POSITIVE ROLE OF SPIRITUALITY & RELIGION
● Various aspects of religion are linked with positive outcomes for adolescents ● Religion also plays a role in adolescents’ health & whether they engage in problem behaviours ● Spirituality/religiosity was positively related to well-being, self-esteem, & 3 of the Big Five factors of personality (O,C,A) ● Many religious adolescents internalise their religion’s message about caring & concern for people ● Religious communities encourage socially acceptable behaviour, which includes doing well in school.
DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES
COGNITIVE CHANGES ● Adolescents think abstractly, idealistically, & logically than children ● Due to that they consider various ideas about religious & spiritual concepts. ● Adolescents’ increased idealism provides a foundation for thinking about whether religion is the best route to creating a better, more ideal world ● Their increased logical reasoning gives them the ability to develop hypotheses & systematically sort through different answers to spiritual questions IDENTITY ● During adolescence & emerging adulthood, identity development becomes a central focus ● “Who am I?” “What am I all about as a person?” “What kind of life do I want to lead?” ● Adolescents & emerging adults begin to grapple in more sophisticated, logical ways ● In a study, Latino & Asian adolescents had the highest levels of religious identity, while Latino adolescents had the highest level of religious participation. RELIGIOUS SOCIALIZING & PARENTING ● Children & adolescents tend to adopt the religious teachings of their upbringing. ● Adolescents who have a positive relationship with their parents or are securely attached to them are likely to adopt their parents’ religious affiliation. ● But, when conflict or insecure attachment characterises parent-adolescent relation- ships, adolescents may seek a religious affiliation that is different from their parents’ ● mothers are more influential in religious development of the child ● Peers also play a role in adolescents’ religious interest. RELIGIOUSNESS & SEXUALITY IN ADOLESCENT & EMERGING ADULTHOOD ● Adolescents & emerging adults who frequently attend religious services are likely to hear messages about abstaining from sex. ● Involvement of adolescents and emerging adults in religious orga- nizations also enhances the probability that they will become friends with adolescents who have
