Download All_of_portage_modules_BIOD_152.docx (1) and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity!
All of portage modules
Intro to the Nervous System
Notice: To optimize your learning in this course, we advise that you complete the labs and modules as indicated in the BIOD 152 Lab Schedule. The nervous system receives and processes information and sends out signals to the muscles and glands to elicit an appropriate response. In this way, the nervous system integrates and controls the other systems of the body. In the human nervous system, the central nervous system (Figure below) includes the brain and the spinal cord (dorsal nerve cord), which lie in the midline of the body.
All of portage modules
The skull protects the brain and the vertebrae protect the spinal cord. The central nervous system can send signals or impulses to and receive impulses from the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system includes all nerves not in the brain or spinal cord which are the cranial nerves that connect directly to the brain and the spinal nerves which project from either side of the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system connects all parts of the body to the central nervous system and can be divided into a sensory or afferent division and a motor or efferent division. The peripheral nervous system receives impulses from the sensory organs via the afferent division and then relays signals or impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands via the motor or efferent division. The efferent division can be further divided into the somatic system and the autonomic system. The somatic system nerves control skeletal muscles, skin, and joints. The autonomic system nerves control the glands and smooth muscles of the internal organs and are not generally under conscious control and can be divided into two systems: the sympathetic system which activates and prepares the body for vigorous muscular
All of portage modules
- What are the 2 divisions of the autonomic nervous system? sympathetic and parasympathetic
- What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system? to arouse and activate muscles for activity, stress and emergency
- What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system? To calm and lower activity. Permits digestion and conserves energy
Neurons
Neurons (Figure below) are nerve cells that vary in size and shape. They do not undergo mitosis (cell division), require enormous amounts of fuel, are able to survive just minutes without oxygen, and can last an entire human lifetime. Neurons all have three parts: the dendrites, the cell body, and the axon. The neuron cell body, which synthesizes all nerve cell products, consists of a large nucleus with surrounding cytoplasm containing the normal organelles. The dendrites are numerous short extensions that emanate from the cell body which receive information from other neurons conducting those nerve impulses toward the cell body. The single axon, on the other hand, conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body to its axon terminals where it is emitted across a synapse to the dendrite of another neuron. Axons can vary in length being very short or as long as three feet, the length of the axon which extends from the bottom of the spine to the big toe. Axons are composed of cells like the cell body but lack rough endoplasmic reticulum, depending on the cell body for necessary proteins. The peripheral nerve axon is coated in short sections called Schwann cells which are mainly composed of a white fatty layer called the myelin sheath rolled around the axon which insulates the nerve fiber from others and increases the speed of nerve impulses. There are also unmyelinated fibers, which are common in the gray matter of the brain and spinal cord, in which the Schwann cells do not wrap around the axon but are just loosely associated with the axon. The Schwann cell insulating sections are not continuous, having gaps between them called Nodes of Ranvier. At these exposed nodes, the nerve impulse
All of portage modules
is
All of portage modules
- List the 3 parts of a neuron. The cell body, dendrites, and axon
- Describe the structure and function of the neuron cell body. The cell body has a large nucleus with cytoplasm. It synthesizes all nerve cell products. The cell body produces neurotransmitters and chemicals. When the neurotransmitters are released by the axon terminals vesicles out of storage in secretory vesicles, they then help the process of nerve impulses form one neuron to another.
- Describe the structure and function of the dendrite. The dendrite has numerous short extensions that receives information from other neurons conducting them toward the cell body.
- Describe the axon, including the number in each neuron, function, structure and organelles. The axon can very in length, can be short or up to three feet tall. conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body towards the axon terminal to be able to communicate from one neuron to another. Axons are composed of cells like the cell body but lack rough endoplasmic reticulum.
- Describe the composition and function of Schwann cells. Schwann cells are composed of white fatty layer called myelin sheath which insulates nerve fibers from other and increases nerve impulse speed.
- Describe the location and function of the Nodes of Ranvier. Nodes of Ranvier are located in the gaps between the non continuous shwann cells. These gaps force impulses to jump to the next node which is called salutatory conduction which increases the transmission of nerve impulses down the axon.
- What important organelle is absent from the neuron cell body and what does the absence of this organelle indicate about activity of the cell body? Centrioles are absent in the cell body resulting in no mitosis in the cell body.
- Describe the function and site of synthesis and storage of neurotransmitters. The cell body produces neurotransmitters and chemicals. When the neurotransmitters are released by the axon terminals vesicles out of storage in secretory vesicles, they then help the process of nerve impulses form one neuron to another.
Neuroglial Cells
All of portage modules
A nerve consists of hundreds of thousands of axons (#3) wrapped together in a connective tissue. In the peripheral nervous system the cell bodies of neurons (#2) are grouped together in masses called ganglia which are part of a single nerve. The neurons are also accompanied by non-nerve "supporting" cells known collectively as neuroglial cells which include (as shown in the diagram below) ependymal cells (#1), oligodendrocytes (#4), astrocytes (#5) and microglial cells (#7). The functions of these supporting cells are as follows: ependymal cells (circulate cerebrospinal fluid and allow fluid exchange between brain, spinal cord and CSF), oligodendrocytes (insulation of central nervous system axons), astrocytes (control chemical environment of neurons) and microglial cells (protect CNS by scavenging dead cells and infectious microoganisms). Neurons can be classified as to their structure and function. Structurally, neurons are classified according to the number of extension from their cell body, as multipolar, bipolar and unipolar neurons. Multipolar neurons, the most common type in humans found as motor neurons or interneurons within the CNS, have three or more extensions, one axon and many dendrites. Bipolar neurons, found as receptors cells in the visual and olfactory systems, have two extensions, one axon and one dendrite. Unipolar neurons, found as sensory neurons in the peripheral nervous system, have one extension which branches into two, one central process running to the CNS and another peripheral process running to the sensory receptor. Functionally, neurons are classified as sensory or afferent neurons, motor or efferent neurons and association
All of portage modules
The pump works by using an integral carrier protein that, for every three Na+ ions that are pumped out, two K+ ions are pumped in. The pump must keep in constant operation, because the Na+ and K+ ions will naturally diffuse back to where they originated. Because the plasma membrane is more permeable to K+ diffusing outward and because more Na+ ions are being pumped outward than K+ pumped inward, a relative positive charge develops and is maintained on the outside of the membrane. If the axon is stimulated to conduct a nerve impulse, there is a rapid change in the polarity. This change in polarity is called the action potential. First, the membrane potential becomes more positive (called depolarization), indicating that the inside of the membrane is now more positive than the outside. Then the potential returns to normal (called re-polarization), indicating that the inside of the axon is negative again. The action potential is due to special protein-lined channels in the membrane, which can open to allow either sodium or potassium ions to pass through. These channels have gates, called sodium gates and potassium gates. During the resting phase both sodium and potassium gates are closed. The sodium gates open and sodium rushes into the axon during the depolarization phase of the action potential. Voltage travels to zero and then on up to +40mV. Once this phase is complete, re-polarization occurs. The sodium gates close and potassium gates open allowing potassium to rush out of the axon. This returns a negative voltage to the inside of the axon but these gates are slow to close and there is generally an afterpolarization undershoot of the potential. These channels and their gates are voltage activated, as proteins respond to changes in voltage with changes in shape.
All of portage modules
The action potential travels along the length of an axon like a wave. It is self-propagating because the ion channels are prompted to open whenever the membrane potential decreases (depolarizes) in an adjacent area. An action potential is an all-or-nothing response either occurring or not. Since no variation exists in the strength of a single impulse, we distinguish the difference in intensity of a sensation (minor pain/major pain) by the number of neurons stimulated and the frequency with which they are activated. An impulse passing from one vertebrate nerve cell to another always moves in only one direction and there is a very short delay in transmission of the nerve impulse from one neuron to another. Neurons do not touch. There is a minute fluid-filled space, called a synapse, between the axon terminal of the sending (presynaptic) neuron and the dendrite of the receiving (postsynaptic) neuron.
All of portage modules
- Label each numbered section (1-4) of the diagram below which describes an action potential.
- resting
- depolarization
- repolarization
- after (hyper) polarization
- Describe what happens to the charges on the axon cell membrane during depolarization and what causes this to happen. During the resting phase both sodium and potassium gates that control the relative charges on sides of the membrane are closed. During depolarization the sodium gates open and sodium rushes into the axon and the inside becomes more positive than the outside causing the membrane potential to become more positive.
- Describe what happens to the charges on the axon cell membrane during repolarization and what causes this to happen. During repolarization the sodium gates close and potassium gates open allowing potassium to rush out of the axon. This returns a negative charge to the inside of the axon re-establishing the negative potential.
- Describe what happens during afterpolarization. The potassium gates that open during repolarization are slow to close and there is generally an afterpolarization overshoot of the potential.
All of portage modules
- What causes the difference in intensity of a sensation? The difference in intensity of a sensation is due to the number of neurons stimulated and the frequency with which they are activated.
- How is an impulse passed from one nerve cell to another? There is a minute fluid-filled space, called a synapse, between the axon terminal of the sending neuron and the dendrite of the receiving neuron. When a nerve impulse reaches the end of an axon, neurotransmitters are released into the synapse. These bind with a receptor on the next neuron, opening Na+ gates in the receiving dendrite which causes depolarization and the impulse is carried.
- What prevents continuous stimulation of a nerve synapse and how is this accomplished? Self propagation, channels opening in a wave like action down the axon Once sodium gates starts to open, the rest do and continues going
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system lies outside the central nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves, which are part of either the somatic system or the autonomic system. The somatic system contains nerves that control skeletal muscles, skin, and joints. The autonomic system contains nerves that control the smooth muscles of the internal organs and the glands. Humans have twelve pairs of cranial nerves attached to the brain. Cranial nerves are either sensory nerves (having long dendrites of sensory neurons only), motor nerves (having long axons of motor neurons only), or mixed nerves (having both long dendrites and long axons). With the exception of the vagus nerve, all cranial nerves control the head, neck, and face. The vagus nerve controls the internal organs.
All of portage modules
pair of coccygeal nerves. Each spinal nerve emerges from the spinal cord by two short branches, or roots, which lie within the vertebral column. The dorsal root contains the axons of afferent sensory neurons, which conduct impulses to the cord. The ventral root contains the axons of efferent motor neurons, which conduct impulses away from the cord. These two roots join just before a spinal nerve leaves the vertebral column. Therefore, all spinal nerves are mixed nerves that take impulses to and from the spinal cord. Spinal nerves project from the spinal cord, which is a part of the central nervous system. The spinal cord is a thick, whitish nerve cord that extends longitudinally down the back, where it is protected by the vertebrae. The cord contains a tiny central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid, gray matter consisting of cell bodies and short fibers, and white matter consisting of myelinated fibers. Almost immediately after immerging from the vertebral column, a spinal nerve divides into branches called the dorsal ramus and ventral ramus. The smaller dorsal ramus contains nerves that serve the dorsal portions of the trunk carrying visceral motor, somatic motor, and sensory information to and from the skin and muscles of the back. The larger ventral ramus contains nerves that serve the remaining ventral parts of the trunk and the upper and lower limbs carrying visceral motor, somatic motor, and sensory information to and from the body surface, structures in the body wall, and the limbs. Some ventral rami merge with adjacent ventral rami to form a nerve plexus, a network of interconnecting nerves. Nerves emerging from a plexus contain fibers from various spinal nerves, which are now carried together to some target location. Major plexuses include the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses.
All of portage modules
The phrenic nerve is the most important nerve of the cervical plexus and supplies both motor and sensory fibers to the diaphragm. Irritation of this nerve causes hiccups and severing this nerve would cause paralysis of the diaphragm and require use of a ventilator (mechanical respiratory). The saying “three, four, five keeps the diaphragm alive” is an easy way to remember that the phrenic nerve arrives from the ventral rami of C 3 -C 5.
All of portage modules
The Lumbar plexus nerves arise from the ventral rami of L 1 -L 4 and the femoral nerve is the major nerve that comes from this plexus. The femoral nerve supplies the hip flexors and knee extensors as well as sensation to the skin of the anterior thigh. Finally, the sacral plexus nerves arise from the ventral rami of L 4 -S 4 and the sciatic nerve is the major nerve that comes from this plexus. The sciatic nerve is the largest nerve in the human body. It supplies the inferior trunk and posterior surface of the thigh. Increased pressure on this nerve can result in the condition known as sciatica.
All of portage modules
The somatic nervous system includes all nerves that serve the musculoskeletal system and the exterior sense organs, including the skin. Exterior sense organs (and skin) are receptors, which receive environmental stimuli and then initiate nerve impulses. Muscle fibers are effectors, which bring about a reaction to the stimulus.
