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ANATOMY 2 EXAM 2 LATEST UPDATES - 2025/2026- ACTUAL
QUESTIONS WITH VERIFIED ANSWERS ALREADY GRADED A+
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Most bacteria is completely ______________ harmless bacteria have a hard time living in ___________ pH levels low virus cell walls are ________ times thicker than most cell walls 10x Viruses can enter the body through what? nose, eyes, and mouth There are only __________ known human pathogens (that make you sick) 1400 What is immunity? Resistance to disease what are the 2 parts of the immune system? Innate defense system Adaptive defense system innate defense system characteristics o Rapid response o Nonspecific o Doesn't let anything through o Anti-microbial proteins, phagocytes, inflammation an example of innate defense system is?
skin adaptive defense system characteristics o Slow response o Specific o B and T cells o T cells seek out specific pathogen innate defense surface barriers are? · Mucous membranes · Skin innate defenses internal defenses are? · Phagocytes · Natural killer cells · Inflammation · Antimicrobial proteins · Fever humoral immunity is _______ based blood humoral immunity has to do with which cells? B cells cellular immunity is _______ based cell Cellular immunity has to do with which cells? T cells what do mechanical surface barriers ward off? invading pathogens Skin, mucous membranes, and their secretions provide what? (pertaining to innate defense)
- Free macrophages wander through tissue spaces
- Can be found in tissue and lymphatic system Fixed macrophages permanent residents of some organs stellate macrophages are located in? in liver microglia are located in? brain 5 events of phagocytosis
- Phagocyte adheres to pathogens or debris
- Phagocyte forms pseudopods that eventually engulf the particles, forming a phagosome
- Lysosome fuses with the phagocytic vesicle, forming a phagolysosome
- Lysosomal enzymes digest the particles, leaving a residual body
- Exocytosis of the vesicle removes indigestible and residual material inflammatory response is triggered whenever what is injured? body tissue Inflammatory response prevents the spread of? damaging agents Chemicals leak out when you hurt yourself, this notifies the _______ system which then activates pain receptors nervous Cardinal signs of acute inflammation redness, heat, swelling, pain, and sometimes impairment of function Swelling characteristics o Blood supply shuts down o Body cuts down blood flow around injury o Turns red because hemoglobin
Pus is ___________ blood cells white pus accumulates to eat up what? is not suppose to be there interferons are - chemical messengers What are the Inflammatory mediators? histamine, leukotrienes, prostaglandins What do inflammatory mediators do?
- activate the body's inflammatory response and transmit signals
- make capillaries leaky (makes it easier for white blood cells to get out) What does Aspirin do?
- Prostaglandins induce inflammation, pain, and fever.
- blocks an enzyme called cyclooxygenase, COX-1 and COX-2, effectively blocking the synthesis of prostaglandins! (BLOCKS ENZYME THAT MAKES PROSTAGLANDIN)
- In turn relives some of the effects of pain, fever and blood clotting.
- thins blood Viral-infected cells secrete IFNs (e.g., IFN alpha and beta) to ________ neighboring cells warn IFNs enter neighboring cells produce proteins that block viral reproduction and degrade viral RNA IFN alpha and beta also activate ________ cells NK Artificial IFNs are used to treat? hepatitis C, genital warts, multiple sclerosis, hairy cell leukemia
o Leaking out water (example: legs swelling) - purpose of lymphatic system is to return fluids that leak from blood vessels o Good for transporting lymph o Immune system what are the 3 parts of the lymphatic system?
- Network of lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)
- Lymph
- Lymph nodes lymph fluid in vessels lymph nodes cleanse lymph what do lymphoid organs and tissues house? phagocytic cells and lymphocytes lymphoid organs and tissues provide structural basis of the __________ system immune Structures include of the lymphatic system are? spleen, thymus, tonsils, lymph nodes, other lymphoid tissues _________________ kills all bacteria lymphocytes lymphatic vessels return what back to blood? Return interstitial fluid and leaked plasma proteins back to blood lymph flows __________ the heart toward Lymph vessels (lymphatics) include:
o Lymphatic capillaries o Collecting lymphatic vessels o Lymphatic trunks and ducts lymphatic capillaries characteristics
- Very permeable (take up proteins, cell debris, pathogens, and cancer cells)
- Endothelial cells overlap loosely to form one-way minivalves
- Anchored by collagen filaments, preventing collapse of capillaries; increased ECF volume opens minivalves Pathogens travel throughout body via __________ lymphatics What is lymph? o Composition comparable to that of blood plasma o Contains white blood cells o Lymph that leaves a lymph node is richer in lymphocytes o formed in the digestive system called chyle is rich in triglycerides (fat), and looks milky white The muscles contract to push ___________ upward lymph what are absent from bones, teeth, bone marrow, and CNS? Lymphatic Capillaries Lacteals specialized lymph capillaries present in intestinal mucosa Lacteals absorb and deliver what to the blood? digested fat and deliver fatty lymph (chyle) to the blood __________ lymphatic duct drains right upper arm and right side of head and thorax right
Where are lymph nodes located? Near body surface in inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions of body lymph nodes functions
- Filter lymph - macrophages destroy microorganisms and debris (Ludwar doesn't like that word/definition)
- Immune system activation - lymphocytes activated and mount attack against antigens Structure of a lymph node o Vary in shape and size but most bean shaped o External fibrous capsule o Trabeculae extend inward and divide node into compartments o Two histologically distinct regions what are the two historically distinct regions of a lymph node? medulla and cortex Circulation in the Lymph Nodes
- Lymph Enters via afferent lymphatic vessels
- Travels through large subcapsular sinus and smaller sinuses
- exits concave side at hilum via efferent vessels
- Fewer efferent vessels, causing flow of lymph to stagnate, allowing lymphocytes and macrophages time to carry out functions secondary cancer in the lymph nodes o TNM staging system: Extent of the tumor (T) Spread to the lymph nodes (N) Presence of metastasis (M) N0: no cancer found in the lymph nodes near the cancer
N1-3: depending on how many nodes are affected, how much cancerous tissue is in them, how large they are, and where they are spleen functions o Site of lymphocyte proliferation and immune surveillance and response o Cleanses blood of aged cells and platelets, macrophages remove debris o Stores breakdown products of RBCs (ex: iron), platelets and monocytes Spleen characteristics o Seed of lymphatic cells o In children serves to make RBCs o Largest lymphoid organ o Served by splenic artery and vein, which enter and exit at the hilum what is the largest lymphoid organ? spleen the thymus has important functions when in someones life? early where is the thymus found? Found in inferior neck; extends into mediastinum; partially overlies heart Thymus growing activity o Increases in size and most active during childhood o Stops growing during adolescence, then gradually atrophies
- Still produces immunocompetent cells, though slowly Thymic lobules in the thymus contain what? outer cortex and inner medulla the cortex in the thymus contains - rapidly dividing lymphocytes and scattered macrophages Medulla contains __________ lymphocytes and thymic corpuscles involved in regulatory T cell development (prevent autoimmunity)
Peyer's patches o Clusters of lymphoid follicles o In wall of distal portion of small intestine o Similar structures are also found in the appendix peyer's patches do what in the appendix? Destroy bacteria, preventing them from breaching intestinal wall Peyer's patches generate __________ lymphocytes in the appendix memory characteristics of adaptive defenses o triggered by inflammation - this the first step (causes the adaptive immune system to kick in) o highly specific: recognizes and targets specific antigens o tolerance: ignores normal "self" tissue o slow (compared to innate immunity) - often takes up to 10 days to kick in o Systemic: not restricted to initial site o have memory: stronger attacks to "known" antigens: basis of vaccination! o Only fights one specific target o Affects/works in the whole body example of adaptive immune system allergy Adaptive Immune Response: cellular o Lymphocytes act against target cell
- Directly by killing infected cells
- Indirectly by releasing chemicals that enhance inflammatory response
- Indirectly by activating other lymphocytes or macrophages o Cellular immunity has cellular targets MHC proteins transport - antigens MHC protein grabs antigen and shoves it to the ____________
outside MHC cell binds to antigen and takes it to the ___________ _________ plasma membrane Adaptive Immune Response: Humoral Antibody mediated - ABs produced by lymphocytes, circulating freely in body fluids ("humors") Bind temporarily to target cell
- Temporarily inactivate
- Mark for destruction by phagocytes or complement o Humoral immunity has extracellular targets self-antigens o cell surface proteins that mark a cell as "self" o MHC proteins (major histocompatibility complex) - histo = tissue o unique to each person (except identical twins) o class 1 (on virtual all body cells) and class 2 (certain immune cells) adaptive immune response : cellular (3) steps
- T cell checks to see if it belongs there
- T cell activates because it finds antigen
- T cell begins to look everywhere for another copy of this antigen basic antibody structure o T- or Y-shaped antibody monomer of four looping polypeptide chains linked by disulfide bonds o two identical heavy (H) chains with hinge region at "middles", two identical light (L) chains o Variable (V) regions at one end of each arm combine to form two identical antigen-binding sites o Constant (C) regions of stem determine antibody class (IgM, IgA, IgD, IgG, or IgE) antigens o substances that provoke an immune response o the ultimate targets of the adaptive immune response
- Peak levels of plasma antibody are reached in 10 days
- Antibody levels then decline basis of vaccination o Secondary immune response o Re-exposure to same antigen gives faster, more prolonged, more effective response
- Sensitized memory cells respond within hours
- Antibody levels peak in two to three days at much higher levels
- Antibodies bind with greater affinity
- Antibody level can remain high for weeks to months active humoral immunity o Vaccines
- Most of dead or attenuated pathogens
- Spare us symptoms of primary response
- Provide antigenic determinants that are immunogenic and reactive Get some immune reaction and memory cells protect you If the disease is not deactivated, - you may get sick passive humoral immunity o Transfer of active humoral immunity in the form of ready-made antibodies from one individual to another (was employed with Ebola patients):
- naturally acquired antibodies delivered to fetus via placenta or to infant through milk
- artificially acquired—injection of serum, such as gamma globulin the downside of passive humoral immunity is? o Protection immediate but ends when antibodies naturally degrade in body Maturation o "Educated" to become mature; B cells in bone marrow, T cells in thymus:
- Immunocompetence - lymphocyte can recognize one specific antigen by binding to it
- B or T cells display only one unique type of antigen receptor on surface when achieve maturity, i.e. they bind only one antigen
- Self-tolerance
- Lymphocytes unresponsive to own antigens
- called "naive" until they are exposed to an Antigen active immunity Naturally Acquired infection; contact with pathogen artificially acquired vaccine; dead or attenuated pathogens passive immunity Naturally Acquired : Antibodies passed from mother to fetus via placenta; or to an infant in her milk Artificially Acquired : Injection of exogenous antibodies (gamma globulin) Antigen-presenting Cells (APCs) o Engulf antigens o Present fragments of antigens to T cells for recognition o Major types of antigen-presenting cells
- Dendritic cells in connective tissues and epidermis
- Macrophages in connective tissues and lymphoid organs
- B cells medical implications o Organ transplants (Immunosuppressants) o Immunodeficiencies (e.g. Hodgkin's Disease = Cancer of B cells) o AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome): a virus (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) that cripples immune system by interfering with activity of helper T cells
o olfaction - smell o Speech - modulate airflow over vocal cords respiration o movement of oxygen from the outside air to the cells within tissues, and the transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction
- Ventilation - basically breathing (the physical act of getting air into your lungs and then back out)
- External respiration - exchange of oxygen from lungs to blood
- Internal respiration - getting oxygen into blood stream and CO2 back out
- Cellular Respiration - goes out of the blood stream and into the cell; Where ATP is made, taking oxygen and sugar to make ATP Anatomy of the Respiratory System o Nose o Nasal cavity o Pharynx o Larynx o Trachea if you have an illness that affects your voice, there is bacteria on the
larynx what has a vacuum in it and cartilage rings that keeps it open so things can pass through? trachea where does the 1st respiration happen? Alveoli what affects how well we can breathe? Airway resistance, alveolar surface tension, and lung compliance lungs
o Occupy all thoracic cavity except the mediastum (where the heart is located) o Apex - superior tip; deep to clavicle o Base - inferior surface; rests on diaphragm o Hilum - on mediastinal surface; site for entry/exit of blood vessels, bronchi, lymphatic vessels, and nerves o The left lung is smaller than the right
- Cardiac notch - concavity for heart
- Separated into superior and inferior lobes by oblique fissure What surrounds the lungs and is double walled? Pleurae What is the superior tip of the lungs called? apex What is the site for the entry/exit of blood vessels, bronchi, lymphatic vessels, and nerves in the lungs? hilum What provides lubrication and assists in expansion and recoil in the pleural cavity? pleura fluid pleurae o Double wall membrane around the lungs o Thin, double- layered serosa; divides thoracic cavity into two pleural compartments and mediastinum o Parietal pleura on thoracic wall, superior face of diaphragm, around heart, between lungs (outer membrane) o Visceral pleura on external lung surface (connected to ribs) o Pleura fluid fills slitlike pleural cavity
- Provides lubrication and surface tension - > assists in expansion and recoil Pulmonary circulation (low pressure, high volume) Pulmonary arteries
