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BIOL 319 A&P Exam Review Guide One
*** Know the 3 reasons why the periosteum is so important (function) to living bone. - ✔✔
- Scaffolding for blood vessels + nerves for bone (guiding structure)
- Produces Osteoblast (birthplace)
- Bridging tissue for ligaments and bone A critical player that carries the message from the controller to the effector is oxytocin. What type of molecule is oxytocin? Answer the question from a macromolecular standpoint and from a physiological standpoint? (Hint: Oxytocin is a type of macromolecule (what type) that functions in the endocrine system). -
- Oxytocin is a small peptide (protein) hormone
- It is a hormone that is secreted by the pituitary gland, oxytocin receptor is highly expressed on the surface of the uterine smooth muscle cells
- It is a hormone that causes increased contraction of the uterus during labor and stimulates the ejection of milk into the ducts of the breasts About what percentage of the total body mass does this molecule comprise in the young adult? - ✔✔ 60 - 67% Any clinical conditions which they may be involved in (pericarditis, cardiac tamponade, pleurisy, pleuritis, peritonitis. etc). Furthermore know any pre- conditions (hint; appendicitis) that could lead to any of these conditions. - ✔✔Pericarditis ( - itis, inflammation) is inflammation of the pericardium. (not a myocardial infarction) Cardiac tamponade - is a potentially fatal
condition in which a large volume of fluid or blood accumulates in the pericardial cavity and compresses the heart from the outside.Pleurisy/pleuritis - is inflammation of the pleura. Visceral and parietal pleura start rubbing up against each other.
- Can be heard on auscultation called pleural rubs due to the friction of the serous membranes rubbing up against each other Peritonitis - is inflammation of the peritoneum *Google: The main problem with appendicitis is the risk of a burst appendix.. A burst appendix can lead to infection in the belly, called peritonitis. *From class: If appendix bursts, the peritoneum becomes infected because of all the pus, which can lead to sepsis and/or death Are "structure" (anatomy) and "function (physiology) linked? How so?
- Can the two be studied separately or together? - ✔✔Yes, they are linked. They influence each other heavily.
- "Structure dictates function"
- Can be studied together Are any of these homeostatically regulated variables electrolyte levels? - ✔✔Yes, important for keeping the body hydrated, controlling blood pH and ensuring the proper function of muscle and nerves. Are hair cells dead by the time they emerge above the skin as part of the shaft? - ✔✔Yes, they are composed entirely of keratin.
- Ex. in slides = simple squamous epithelium of alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs allow diffusion → of gasses between air and blood
- Alveoli (tiny sac) that make up the lungs to expand (O2 in) and relax (CO2 air out) the shorter the distance (thickness epithelial) allow for diffusion and gas exchange to be more efficient; can bring in O2 much faster and simultaneously let CO2 out Based on what you know, can someone suffering from either of these conditions be treated? If so, how so? - ✔✔Treatment is just Vitamin D or Calcium supplementation Both spongy and compact bone have: - ✔✔Canaliculus, lacunae, osteocytes, osteoclasts, concentric rings of bone, osteoblasts, lamellae Can each of these 4 major tissue types be classified into sub-classifications? If so, which of the 4 are especially complex in this regard? - ✔✔CONNECTIVE Connective tissue can be sub-classified and is the most abundant/complex tissue type
- Bone: Spongy bone & Compact bone
- Cartilage: Hyaline cartilage, Fibrocartilage, Elastic cartilage
- Connective tissue proper: Loose (Adipose, Areolar, Reticular); Dense (Dense regular, Dense irregular, Elastic dense); & Fluid (Blood (red and yellow marrow), Lymph) Epithelial tissue can be sub-classified into four different types:
- Simple epithelium: single layer of cells from basement of membrane to the free surface
- Stratified epithelium: more than one layer of cells from basement membrane to the free surface
- Pseudostratified columnar epithelium: special type of simple epithelium; appears to be stratified but is false (pseudo = false); one
layer, multiple lengths of cells but all attach to the basement membrane - Transitional epithelium: special type of stratified epithelium; shape of cell changes from cuboidal & columnar to squamous-like
- Can also be categorized by shape: (Squamous: cells are flat/ scale- like), (Cuboidal: cells are cubed-shaped; as tall as wide), (Columnar: cells are taller than they are wide (like a column)) Can gross anatomy be studied regionally...systemically.....some combination of both. - ✔✔Both - in lab we look at it more systematically but medical systems do regionally approach more Can histology be defined as a sub-classification of anatomy? If so, how so? - ✔✔Yes, histology is a sub-classification of anatomy because histology (tissues) is a part of the structure of the body. Tissues work together all throughout the body and work in every system. Ex: connective tissue: everywhere in your body Knowledge of tissue structure and function is important in understanding organs, organ systems, and the complete organisms. When there is a loss of one vital tissue through disease or injury can lead to organ failure and death Can one develop acromegaly without developing gigantism? If so, how so? - ✔✔All people with gigantism will develop acromegaly but all people with acromegaly will not have gigantism. Yes, if gigantism develops in adulthood. This is because epiphyseal plate has already turned into the epiphyseal line and all of the bones Can one examine the "compressive strength" component of bone by removing the "tensile strength" component? If so, how? - ✔✔If you take a bone and put it in sulfuric acid the hydroxyapatite would be gone and it is
Compare and contrast endosteum vs. periosteum. - ✔✔Endosteum [Gr., endo, within + osteon, bone] diaphysis, plural: diaphyses epiphysis, plural: epiphyses ● Membranous lining of the medullary cavity of the diaphysis and the cavities of spongy bone and compact bone. ● Single cell layer of connective tissue ● No ligaments/ tendons attach, inside membrane of bone ● Cover inner surface of trabeculae ● Periosteum [Gr., peri, around + osteon, bone] ● Thick, double-layered connective tissue sheath covering the entire surface of a bone, except the articular surface, which is covered with cartilage. Contains blood vessels and nerves. ● Perforating fiber, or sharpy fibers, and they strengthen the attachment of the tendons or ligaments to the bone. Sharpey Fibers: penetrate deep into the compact bone + attaches the periosteum to bone through ligaments ● Includes osteoblast, osteoclast, and osteochondral progenitor cells ● Ligaments attach to periosteum Compare and contrast spongy bone vs. compact bone insofar as their presence and proportionality in the diaphysis vs. the epiphysis. - ✔✔Spongy bone in the epiphysis and Compact bone are the walls of the diaphysis. Compare and contrast the cause, symptoms, physiological effects of rickets vs. osteomalacia? - ✔✔Rickets:
- Not enough Vitamin D/Calcium
- osteoblast dont have enough to work with
- soft bone
- bone wont be hard/riged
- Femur is weight bearing will break
- Happens in children so there is a deficit in height Osteomalacia:
- Happens in adults wont have deficit in height Compare and contrast the difference between adult and juvenile bones. - ✔✔Juvenile bone is different from adult bone because it has the ability to grow. Juvenile bone has an epiphyseal growth plate that contains hyaline cartilage where adult bone does not have this and instead has epiphyseal line. The line suggests that growth has stopped. Compare and contrast the regional vs. the systemic approach. What approach(es) are used in BIOL 319? Hint: we mainly use one, but it also could be argued that (especially in the lab) we use within one approach, some of the other (in other words a "nested" approach or blended approach) Explain this, by thinking about how you are approaching the study of the skeleton in lab this semester. A special shout out to the term "histology"! And so what is a concise definition of histology? - ✔✔We are using a systemic approach but in lab we blend in regionality; systems of grouped structures (muscular, skeletal...);Histology: study of tissues; tissues are collections of identical cells that aggregate together in sheets/lumps groups. Their aggregation allows them to contribute to the function of an organ. Compare and contrast the underlying cause(s) clinical signs /symptoms and ultimate effect on the body (and how/why these effects occur) of the following: Pituitary Dwarfism; Achondroplasia (achondroplastic dwarfism), cretinism, and gigantism and acromegaly. - ✔✔- pituitary dwarfism
- More rare
Dermis: thick layer Contrast how the signal is changed via positive feedback compared to negative feedback. - ✔✔- The signal for a positive feedback amplifies the change while the negative feedback reduces the change Define and the terms erythema and cyanosis and give examples of what might cause these changes in skin coloration to arise. - ✔✔Erythema is a condition in which the skin turns a reddish hue when the amount of blood flowing through the skin increases. An inflammatory response stimulated by infection, sunburn, allergic reactions, insect bites, or other causes can produce erythema.Exposure to the cold and blushing or flushing when angry or hot can also produce erythema. A decrease in blood flow, as occurs in shock, can make the skin appear pale, and a decrease in the blood O2 content produces cyanosis, a bluish skin color. Define histology. - ✔✔The study of the structure of tissues in which you have to study under a microscope. Microscopic examination of tissues can identify abnormalities, including cancer, resulting from changes in a tissue Define retroperitoneal organs, Examples? - ✔✔Retroperitoneal: behind the peritoneum, tightly adhered to the posterior body wall, only covered on their peritoneal surface. Example organs include: kidneys, ureters, adrenal glands, pancreas, part of large intestine, and urinary bladder. Define the term "gross" as defined in the term "gross anatomy"? - ✔✔large body structures that can be seen with the naked eye (big picture)
Did I give an example of a bone that has "long bone markers" but also flat bone markers? Example? - ✔✔Clavicle: longer than it is wide, has at least one epiphysis, but because the shaft isn't straight it can't be classified as long bone. Mostly classified as a flat bone Do all serous membranes contain mesenteries? - ✔✔No, located within peritoneum only Do hair follicles have a unique function? - ✔✔- Grow your hair and repair skin after injury Do they cooperate with one another? - ✔✔Yes, they must always cooperate with each other Do you think this muscle is cardiac?...skeletal?....smooth (Hint: would you say you have conscious control of initiating goose bumps or stopping them once they occur? - ✔✔This is smooth muscle. No conscious control of it. Does the nervous system and cardiovascular system infiltrate bone? If so, explain the significance of this infiltration. - ✔✔There are blood vessels and nerves that infiltrate the bone and are scaffolded by the periosteum. Does the physiology of the epiphyseal plate after birth match a general theme seen in the development of the skeleton before birth? - ✔✔Yes --> new cartilage turns into bone
squamous epithelium; the multiple layers of the epidermis protect from abrasion and reduces water loss through the skin.
- Keratinocytes: makes up most cells of the epidermis and produces keratin to make cells more durable and resistant to abrasion/water loss. These cells are constantly lost at the surface but also constantly replaced by new cells rising to the surface made by keratinocyte stem cells undergoing mitosis
- Keratinization: process keratinocytes go through as they rise to the surface where they change shape and chemical composition, in addition to accumulating keratin. The cells will eventually die and produce an outer layer of dead, hard cells that resists abrasion and forms a permeability layer
- Melanocytes: produce melanin, contributes to skin color
- Langerhan's Cells: part of the immune system
- Merkel Cells: associated with nerve endings responsible for detecting light touch and superficial pressureDermis: connective tissue responsible for most of the strength of the skin Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis): layer of loose connective tissue, not part of integumentary system, but connects skin to underlying bone or muscle For nails, know the anatomical location of: the nail root, nail matrix, nail body, nail bed, and hyponychium. Of the previous list, which do you think is most closely analogous to the physiological function of the hair matrix or stratum basale of the epidermis? - ✔✔The nail matrix, it is where your fingernails and toenails start to grow. The matrix creates new skin cells, which pushes out the old, dead skin cells to make your nails. This is the same w hair matrix (produces hair & internal root sheath) & stratum basale (constantly dividing & making new cells to replace old epithelial cells)
For negative feedback, what is the significance of the set-point? How are negative feedback and homeostasis related? - ✔✔If body varies from a set- point, there is a change in variable which results in a signalSet-points can be adjusted depending on physiological needs
- Ex: blood pressureNeg. feedback is crucial in relations to homeostasis (maintaining balance). Ex: when blood pressure is too high (inbalance) neg feedback is able to diminish the variable until it goes back into the direction it should be at. Both neg, and pos feedback are a part of homeostasis For the four major tissue types, know salient "structural" and "functional" aspects of each tissue spelled out for each type. Do not just go by the details spelled out on the PowerPoint slides. I said a lot more than is just outlined on the slides, but if you took good notes and recorded my lectures (this is especially true for slides 1-11 and 1-14), you should be fine for the test if you know the details to the extent I discussed in class. - ✔✔1) Epithelial tissue- line body surfaces, major tissue type of glands (endocrine, excretory)
- Organs of the body: secretes (made of epithelial tissue)
- Covers and protects surfaces, both inside and outside of the body
- The lungs have a thin layer of specialized epithelial tissues that enhances the exchange of gasses between air and blood
- Outer layer of skin is composed of a different type of epithelial tissue (stratified squamous epithelium), which provides protection to underlying tissues
- The body surfaces include the exterior surface, the lining of digestive and respiratory tracts, the heart and blood vessels, and the linings of many body cavities Structure:
- Cells take up max volume, minimal extracellular space
- Lines body surfaces
- Often have a basal surface and an apical (facing the body cavity and hollow) surface -
allows the development of these qualities. - ✔✔Osteoclasts develop from the periosteum and endosteum. osteoclasts are the largest in size compared to OCP, osteoblasts, and osteocytes. Osteoclasts are multinucleated and monocytes (WBC) are precursors of these cells. For the second most important hypercalcemic hormone, its final production is dependent on the "most important" hormone.....Explain the details of this. - ✔✔The PTH gives the kidney permission to do the final hydroxylation of caldidiol, making it calcitriol. From what language did we borrow the term "gross"? - ✔✔German origin or word meaning "large" Furthermore, know the meaning/anatomy and physiological significance of and be able to identify (possibly in a drawing) the following terms: endosteum, periosteum, , canaliculi, trabecula(e), cancellous bone, spongy bone, trabecular bone, perforating canals, Volkmann's canals, haversian canals, central canals, cortical bone. - ✔✔- Volkmann's canal (perforating canals) - any of the small channels in the bone that transmit blood vessels from the periosteum into the bone and that communicate with the haversian canals
- Trabeculae - interconnecting rods (beams or struts) of bone
- Canaliculi - tiny canals that allow interstitial fluid to flow out of the lacunae, where cell extensions are located too
- Haversian canal (central canal) - canal in the center of osteon that is a passageway for arteries, veins, and nerves- only in compact bone
- Endosteum: membrane lining the inner surface of bony wall, creates new cells for new bone growth
- Periosteum: membrane of blood vessel and nerves that wrap around bone, help repair and grow bone too Given that siblings of the opposite sex have the same genetic background (except for one of the sex chromosomes) and are likely exposed to the same nutritional and environmental factors, what accounts for the general trend that brothers will tend to average a greater height as adults compared to their sisters? - ✔✔Testosterone; slow to close the epiphyseal plate Given your knowledge of the effect of sex steroids on osteoblast activity and the differential secretion of testosterone vs estrogen in men vs. women, respectively, why are women on average more vulnerable to osteoporosis? - ✔✔After menopause, womens estrogen levels decrease. estrogen promotes osteoblast production. men's testosterone levels decrease slower than women's estrogen's levels. therefore women are more vulnerable to osteoporosis. How do stretch marks arise and what do they represent? - ✔✔- When the skin is overstretched, the dermis ruptures and leaves lines that are visible through the epidermis. They can develop when an individual rapidly grows, pregnant women or athletes who rapidly increase muscle size. How does positive feedback differ from negative feedback in terms of how the controller affects the signal? Compared to negative feedback, how does positive feedback affect the signal? - ✔✔- Instead of bringing the variable back down, positive feedback tries to increase it multiple times and amplify the signal again and again
- Compared to neg. Feedback, the goal is not homeostasis and will continue to push out and output
How does this compare with cells of the stratum corneum of the epidermis? - ✔✔Stratum corneum is also composed of dead squamous cells made of keratin. How is the term cortical bone fitting for compact bone? - ✔✔Cortical derives from cortex which means the outermost layer How is this the opposite of bone cell deposition (Which cell specializes in deposition)? - ✔✔Osteoblast How is trabecular bone a fitting term for spongy bone? - ✔✔AKA Cancellous bone Trabeculae (pl.) are bigger and easier to see than osteons. Look like holes on a sponge... I can think of two types of tissues mentioned in class, one a precursor of flat bones (especially of the skull and clavicle) and one much more wide ranging and typified by development in long bones. I spent quite a bit of time lecturing on the progression of endochondral ossification. Know and understand this progression to the extent discussed in class. While going through it you should use the phrases (not necessarily entirely in the order listed here), cartilaginous precursor, perichondrium, periosteum, bone collar, chondrocyte induced calcification, chondrocyte apoptosis, woven bone deposition, woven bone destruction/reabsorption, primary ossification, medullary cavity formation, periosteal bud(s) secondary ossification. - ✔✔● Precursor to flat bone- embryonic mesenchyme membrane ● Precursor to the long bone- hyaline cartilage Endochondral Ossification
● Takes place within the cartilaginous precursor of what will (mostly) become bone ● Steps: ○ Chondrocytes in the diaphysis produce cartilage that is surrounded by perichondrium (fibrous connective tissue) ○ The perichondrium of the diaphysis becomes periosteum, meaning osteoblasts are produced. Chondrocytes hypertrophy, meaning they increase in size until they eventually undergo apoptosis (@5 weeks fetal development) and calcified cartilage forms ○ As they hypertrophy, chondrocytes catalyze the crystallization of calcium and phosphate around themselves (analogy: building a coffin around themselves). At the same time, osteoblasts lay down bone matrix on top of the coffin made by chondrocytes, making woven bone (this is trabecular bone that does not have concentric lamellae so technically not actually trabeculae) ○ The woven bone goes away and osteoblasts form a medullary cavity; this ONLY happens in the diaphysis because in the epiphysis it stays as woven bone that later becomes trabeculae ○ When you are born, the diaphysis is ossified but the epiphysis is still undergoing secondary ossification that does not completely finish until late teens for females or early 20's for males ○ In a mature bone, the epiphyseal plate becomes the epiphyseal line; only cartilage remaining in the epiphysis of a MATURE bone is articular cartilage If peritonitis does occur, what might be its deadly consequences? - ✔✔An infection throughout your body (sepsis). Sepsis is a rapidly progressing, life- threatening condition that can cause shock, organ failure and death. If so, how so. Where do osteoblasts and osteoclasts emerge in the process?
- ✔✔-in the zone of ossification: osteoblasts line up on the surface of the calcified cartilage and through appositional bone growth, deposit new matrix, which is later remodeled
