Download Anatomy and Physiology Midterm Reviewer and more Lecture notes Anatomy in PDF only on Docsity!
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LONG TEST REVIEW
Anatomy and Physiology- provide the foundation of understanding the body parts and functions
Anatomy - “ana” means up, “tomy” means process of cutting. Is the science of body structures and relationship among them.
Dissection- “dis” meaning apart and “section” means act of cutting. The careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationship.
Physiology - “physio” means nature “logy” means study of. The science of body functions-how the body parts works.
BRANCHES OF ANATOMY
- Embryology - the first 8 weeks of development after fertilization of a human egg.
- Developmental Biology- the complete development of an individual from fertilization to death.
- Cell Biology- Cellular structures and function
- Histology- Microscopic structure of tissues
- Gross Anatomy - Structures can be examined without microscope
- Systemic Anatomy- Structure of specific systems of the body
- Regional Anatomy- specific regions of the body such as the head or chest.
- Surface Anatomy- surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through visualization and palpitation (gentle touch) 9. Imaging Anatomy- body structures that can be visualized with techniques such as Xrays, MRIs, and CT Scans 10. Pathological Anatomy- Structural changes (gross to microscopic) associated with disease.
BRANCHES OF PHYSIOLOGY
- Neurophysiology - functional properties of nerve cells.
- Endocrinology- hormones (chemical regulators in the blood) and how they can control body functions.
- Cardiovascular Physiology- functions of the heart and blood vessels.
- Immunology - the body’s defenses against disease-causing agents
- Respiratory Physiology - functions of the air passageways and lungs.
- Renal Physiology- functions of the kidneys.
- Exercise Physiology- changes in cell and organ functions due to mascular activity.
- Pathophysiology- functional changes associated with disease and aging.
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION AND BODY SYSTEMS
- Chemical level- the very basic level. Includes the atoms, the smallest units of matter that participate in chemical reactions and molecules, two or more
atoms joined together. Carbon, Hydrogen and oxygen.
- Cellular level- molecules combine to form cells, the basic structural and functional units of an organism that are composed of chemicals. Cells are the smallest living units in the human body. (e.g muscle cells, nerve cells, epithelial cells)
- Tissue level- groups of cells and the materials surrounding them.
Epithelial Tissue- covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities.
Connective Tissue- connects, supports and protects body organs while distributing blood vessel to other tissues. Mascular Tissue- contracts to make body parts move and generate heat.
Nervous Tissue- carries information from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses.
- Organ level- different types of tissues are joined together. Organs are structures that are composed two or more different kinds of tissues, have different functions and have recognizable shapes.
- System level- consists of related organs with a common function.
- Organismal level- any living individual can be compared to a book. All the parts of the human body
functioning together constitute the total organism.
11 SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN BODY
- Endocrine system - regulates body activities by releasing hormones
- Cardiovascular System - heart pumps blood through blood vessels.
- Lymphatic System- returns proteins and fluid to blood.
- Respiratory System - transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood.
- Digestive System - achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food, absorbs nutrients, eliminates solid wastes.
- Urinary System- produces, stores, and eliminates urine wastes.
- Reproductive System- Gonads produce gametes that unite to form organism
- (^) Integumentary System- protects the body, helps regulate blood temperature
- Skeletal System - supports and protects the body. Provides surface area for muscle attachment. Aids body movements.
- Nervous System- generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate body activities.
BASIC LIFE PROCESSES
- Metabolism - sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body.
Catabolism- complex to simpler Anabolism - smaller to complex
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
A. Anterior/Ventral: in front
B. Posterior/Dorsal: in back
C. Medial: toward the midline
D. Lateral: toward the side
E. Internal: within body
F. External: outside the body
G. Proximal: closest to the point of origin
H. Distal: farther from the point of origin
I. Superior: upper or above
J. Inferior: lower
K. Cranial: towards the head
L. Caudal: towards the tailbone
M. Flexion: decreasing the angle between two bones
N. Extension: increasing the angle between two bones
O. Afferent: carrying toward a center
P. Efferent: carrying away or away from a center
Q. Adduction: moving toward the midline
R. Abduction: moving away from the midline
S. Eversion: turning a body part outward
T. Inversion: turning a body part inward
U. Pronation: turning a body part downward
V. Supination: turning a body part upward ( as in shrug shoulders, palms up, “what’s up?”)
W. Deep: away from the body surface, more internal
X. Superficial: toward or at the body surface
Y. Plantar: toward the sole of the foot
Z. Palmar: toward the palm of the hand
PLANES
A. Sagittal: divides the body or organ vertically into right and left unequal parts B. Medial/Mid-sagittal: divides the body or organ vertically into equal right and left parts
C. Coronal/Frontal: divides the body or organ vertically into anterior and posterior parts D. Transverse: divides the body or organ horizontally or into cranial/caudal parts
BODY CAVITIES
A. Ventral (Anterior)
- Thoracic: chest, superior to the diaphragm
a. Right pleural: right lung b. Left pleural: left lung
c. Mediastinum: heart (in pericardial cavity), trachea, right/left bronchus, esophagus, thymus gland, aorta/aortic arch, vena cava
- Abdominopelvic: inferior to diaphragm
a. Abdominal: liver, gallbladder, stomach, pancreas, intestines, spleen, kidneys, ureters b. Pelvic: bladder, female reproductive organs (uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries), male reproductive organs (prostate, seminal vesicles, part of vas deferens), part of large intestine (colon, rectum)
B. Dorsal (Posterior)
- Cranial: houses the brain
- Spinal: houses the spinal cord
BODY REGIONS
A. Head
- Parietal: top of head towards the back and sides
- Frontal: forehead
- Occipital: base of skull
- Temporal: sides of head
- Auricular: ear
- Buccal: cheek
- Orbital: eye socket
- Mastoid: behind the ear
- Nasal: bridge of nose
- Mental: chin
- Submental: beneath the chin
- Maxillary: upper jaw
- Mandibular: lower jaw
- Zygomatic: cheek bone
B. Neck
- Larynx: front of neck
- Trachea: front of neck
- Cervical: back of neck
C. Thorax
- Axillary: armpit
- Clavicular: collar bone
- Sternal: midchest
- Mammary: breat
- Costal: rib
- Scapular: shoulder blade
- Pectoral: chest
- Deltoid: shoulder area
D. Abdominal
- Hypochondriac: under the cartilage of the ribs, right and left
- Epigastric: over/above the stomach
- Umbilical: surrounding the navel, belly button
- Hypogastric: under/below the stomach
- Inguinal/iliac: groin, right and left
E. Abdominal Quadrants
- RUQ: liver, gallbladder, large intestine
- LUQ: stomach, spleen, pancreas, large intestine
- RLQ: appendix, large intestine, ovary, fallopian tube
- LLQ: large intestine, ovary, fallopian tube
F. Posterior Trunk
- Nuchal: back of neck
- Keratinocytes
- Melanocytes
- Langerhans Cell
- Merkel Cell
STRATAS OF THE SKIN
1. Stratum Basale - Also known as stratum germinativum. Deepest layer of the epidermis.
-Basement membrane attached this layer to dermis
-Stem cells undergo cell division to produce more keratinocytes
-Melanocytes are located in stratum membrane wherein these cells produced pigments called melanin that provides human skin, hair and eyes their color
2. Stratum Spinosum - consists of 8-10 rows of many-sided keratinocytes with bundles of tonofilaments
-Include arm-like processes of melanocytes Langerhans cells
3. Stratum Granulosum - Granulos means little
-Consists of 3-5 layers of flattened keratinocytes that are undergoing aptosis
-Cells have purple staining keratohyalin granules in their cytoplasm
-Lucid, light or clear in Latin
-Often appears to be translucent in such specimens
-Present in thick areas such as fingertips, palms of the hands and soles of the feet
-Consists of 3-5 rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes with large amount of keratins
4. Stratum Corneum
-Lucid, light or clear in Latin -Outermost layer of epidermis -Tough layer that consists of 25-30 rows of dead and flattened cells -It cells have been toughened by complete keratinization thus protecting the skin from microorganisms, infection, dehydration and chemical and mechanical stress.
DERMIS -immediately below the epidermis. Largest portion of the skin -Provides tensile strength, mechanical support and protection to the underlying muscles, bones, and organs. -Made up of blood and lymph vessels, nerves, sweat and sebaceous glands and hair roots -Often referred to as true skin
REGIONS OF DERMIS
Papillary Region - the papillary layer is the superficial layer of the dermis that borders on the epidermis. -The papillary layer contains many finger-like extensions called dermal papillae that protrude superficially towards the epidermis. -The dermal papillae increase the surface area of the dermis and contain many nerves and blood vessels that are projected toward the surface of the skin. Blood flowing through the dermal papillae provide nutrients and oxygen for the cells of the epidermis. The nerves of the dermal papillae are used to feel, touch, pain, and temperature through the cells of the epidermis. Reticular Region
-The deeper layer of the dermis, is the thicker and tougher part of the dermis, the reticular layer, is the thicker and tougher part of the dermis.
-Layer is made of dense irregular connective tissue that contains many tough collagen and stretchy elastin fibers running in all direction to provide strength and elasticity to the skin.
-Contains blood vessels to support the skin cells and nerve tissue to sense pressure and pain in the skin.
HYPODERMIS - also known as hypodermis/ sub cutis/ subcutaneous tissue
- deep to the dermis is a layer of loose connective tissues
-Areolar connective tissue in the hypodermis contains elastin and collagen fibers loosely arranged to allow the skin to stretch and move independently of its underlying structures.
- Fatty adipose tissue in hypodermis stores energy in the form of triglycerides. Also helps to insulate the body by trapping body heat produced by the underlying muscles
SKIN GLANDS
Sudoriferous Glands - exocrine glands found in the dermis of the skin and commonly known as sweat glands.
2 Major Types of Sudoriferous gland
- Eccrine sweat glands
- Apocrine sweat glands 1. Sebaceous Glands - exocrine glands found in the dermis of the skin
-produces and oily secretion known as sebum
-Sebum is produced and carried through ducts to the surface of the skin or to hair follicles. -Sebum acts to waterproof and increases the elasticity of the skin.
-Sebum also lubricates and protects the cuticles of hairs as they pass through the follicles to the exterior of the body.
-found in every part of the skin except for the thick skin of the palms of the hands and soles of the feet
2. Ceruminous Glands - special exocrine glands found only in the dermis of the ear canals. -produce waxy secretion known as cerumen to protect ear canals and lubricate the eardrum.
-Cerumen, protects the ears by trapping foreign material such as dust and airborne pathogens
-made continuously and pushes the older cerumen outward toward the exterior of the ear canal where it falls out of the ear or is manually removed.
THE NAIL
Nail Body - formed on the nail bed, protects the tips of our fingers and toes as they are the farthest extremities and the parts of the body that experience the maximum mechanical stress. Free edge - is the part of the nail body that may extend past the distal end of the digit. Lunula - The whitish, crescent shaped area of the proximal end of the nail body.
Eponychium - the cuticle, narrow band of epidermis that extends from and adheres to the margin (lateral border) of the nail wall.
- Keratinazation - also known as cornification is the process of keratin accumulating within keratinocytes. Keratinocytes begin their life as offspring of the stem cells of the stratum basale.
- Temperature Homeostasis - being the body’s outermost organ, the skin is able to regulate the body’s temperature by controlling how the body interacts with its environment. In the case of the body entering a state of hyperthermia, the skin is able to reduce body temperature through sweating and vasodilation.
- Vitamin D Synthesis - Vitamin D, an essential vitamin necessary for the absorption of calcium from food, is produced by ultraviolet (UV) light striking the skin. The stratum basale and stratum spinosum layers of the epidermis contain a sterol molecule known as 7-dehydrocholesterol.
- Protection - The skin provides protection to its underlying tissues from pathogens, mechanical damage and UV light. Pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria, are unable to enter the body through unbroken skin due to the outermost layers of epidermis containing an unending supply of tough, dead keratinocytes.
- (^) Skin color - human skin color is controlled by the interaction of 3 pigments: ✓ melanin ✓ carotene ✓ hemoglobin
Melanin is a brown or black pigment produced melanocytes to protect the skin from
UV radiation. Melanin gives its tan or brown coloration and provides the color of black or brown hair.
- Cutaneous sensations - The skin allows the body to sense its external environment by picking up signals for touch, pressure, vibration, temperature and pain. Merkel disks in the epidermis connect to nerve cells in the dermis to detect shapes and textures of objects contacting the skin. Corpuscles of touch are structures found in the dermal papillae of the dermis that also detect touch by objects contacting the skin. Lumellar corpuscles found deep in the dermis sense pressure and vibration of the skin.
- Excretion - in addition to secreting sweat to cool the body, eccrine sudoriferous glands of the skni also excrete waste products out of the body. Sweat produced by eccrine sudoriferous glands normally contain mostly water with many electolytes and a few other trace chamicals. The most common electrolytes found in sweat are sodium and chloride, but potassium, calcium and magnesium ions may be excreted as well. When these electrolytes reach high levels in the blood, their presence in sweat also increases, helping to reduce their presence within the body.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Skeleton- derived from a Greek word meaning dried. But the skeleton is far from being dry and nonliving. Skeletal System- consists of dynamic, living tissues that are able to grow, detect pain
stimuli, adapt to stress and undergo repair after injury.
Joint- or an articulation, is a place where two bones come together.
THE MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
- Support - rigid, strong bone is well suited for bearing weight and is the major supporting tissue of the body. Cartilage, provides firm yet flexible support within certain structures (e.g nose, external ear, thoracic cage and trachea) Ligaments, strong bands of fibrous connective tissue that attaches to bones and hold them together.
- Protection- Bone is hard and protects the organs it surrounds. (e.g skull surround the brain, vertebrae surround the spinal cord, and rib cage protects the heart, lungs and other organs of the thorax)
- Movement- contraction of the skeletal muscles moves the bones, producing movements. Skeletal muscles attach to bones by tendons, which are strong bands of connective tissue. (e.g joints, smooth cartilage, ligaments)
- Storage- Some minerals in the blood —principally calcium and phosphorus —are stored in bone. Should blood levels of these minerals decrease, the minerals are released from bone into the blood. Adipose tissue in bone cavities, lipids are released into the blood and used by other tissue as a source of energy. 5. Blood cell production - many bones contain cavities filled with red bone marrow which produces blood cells and platelets.
Bone, cartilage, tendons and ligaments - all connective tissues and their extracellular matrix always contain collagen, ground substance and other organic molecules as well as water and minerals.
Collagen - (koila “glue” gen “producing”) is a tough, ropelike protein. Proteoglycans- (Proteo “protein” glycan “Polysaccharide”) are large molecules consisting of polysaccharides attached to core proteins.
Tendons and Ligaments - large amounts of collagen fibers making these structures bery tough, and rope-like.
Cartilage - contains collagen and proteoglycan. Collagen makes cartilage tough whereas the water-filled proteoglycans make it smooth and resilient. Hydroxyapatite - calcium phosphate crystals, a mineral found mostly found in the bone. Osteogenesis- brittle bone disease imperfect bone formation.
FOUR CATEGORIES OF BONE
- Long Bones - longer than they are wide. (e.g bones of the upper and lower limbs)
- Short Bones - approximately as wide as they are long. (e.g bones of wrist and ankle)
- Flat Bones - have a relatively thin flattened shape. (e.g skull bones, the ribs, the scapulae, and the sternum)
-Nutrients leave the blood vessels of the central canal and diffuse to osteocytes through canaliculi. Waste in opposite direction.
SPONGY BONE
-so called because of its appearance, located mainly on the epiphysis of long bones.
-forms the interior of all other bones.
-trabeculae, delicate interconnecting rods or plates of bone that add strength to the bone without added weight. Spaces within it are filled with marrow.
-trabecula consists of lamellae with osteocytes between them
-no blood penetrate the trabeculae and no central canals
-nutrients exit vessel in the marrow and pass by diffusion through canaliculi to the osteocytes of the trabeculae.
BONE OSSIFICATION
Ossification - (os “bone” facio “to make”) the formation of bone by osteoblasts.
-after an osteoblast becomes completely surrounded by bone matrix, it becomes mature one cell or osteocyte.
Intramembranous ossification - bone formation that occurs within connective tissue membranes
-occurs primarily in the bones of the skull
-osteoblasts line up on the surface of the connective tissue fibers and begin depositing bone matrix to form trabeculae
-ossification centers, area where the process begins
Endochondral ossification- bone formation that occurs inside a cartilage
-bones at the base of the skull and most of the remaining skeletal system develop through this process. -Chondrocytes, cartilage cells. They increase in number, enlarge and die during endochondral ossification. -Cartilage matrix becomes calcified.
-as this process is occurring in the center, blood vessels accumulate in the perichondrium.
-presence of blood vessels on the outer surface some of the unspecified tissue on the surface to become osteoblasts -osteoblasts produce collar of bone around the part of the outer surface of diaphysis
-perichondrium becomes periosteum. -blood vessels grow in the center of the diaphysis, bringing in osteoblasts and stimulating ossification.. -Primary ossification center, the center part of the diaphysis where bone first begins to appear. -osteoblasts invade spaces in the center of the bone left by the dying cartilage cells.
-they line up on the remaining calcified matrix and begin to form trabecula. -as the bone develops it is constantly changing. -medullary cavity forms in the center of the diaphysis as osteoclasts remove bone and calcified cartilage which are replaced by bone marrow.
-Secondary ossification, forms in the epiphysis. Bone Growth- occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone or other connective tissue.
Appositional growth- bone increases in width or diameter
Epiphyseal plate - where the growth in length occurs
Bone Remodeling- involves removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and the deposition of new bone by osteoblasts.
Bone Repair:
✓ Hematoma formation ✓ Callus formation
✓ Callus ossification ✓ Bone remodeling
*Bone fractures can be classified as open if the bone protrudes through the skin and closed if the skin is not perforated.
*When blood calcium levels are too low, osteoclast activity increases, osteoclasts release calcium from bone into the blood and blood calcium levels increase.
*Calcium homeostasis is maintained by three hormones:
- parathyroid hormone
- vitamin D
- Calcitonin, works to decrease blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity.
ANATOMICAL TERMS FOR FEATURES
OF BONES
Major
Body , Shaft - main portion
Head - enlarged (often rounded)
Neck- constricted area between head and body
Condyle - smooth, rounded articular surface Facet - small, flattened articular surface Crest- prominent ridge
Process- prominent projection Tubercle or tuberosity - knob or enlargement Trochanter- large tuberosity found only on proximal femur Epicondyle- enlargement near or above a condyle
Openings of Depressions Foramen - hole
Canal, meatus - tunnel Fissure - cleft Sinus- cavity
Fossa -depression
MASCULAR SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF MASCULAR SYSTEM
- Permits movement of the body.
- Maintains posture.
- Circulates blood throughout the body
- Communication
- Producing Body Heat
700 muscles= 40% body weight FOUR MAJOR PROPERTIES
- Excitability or Irritability
- Extensibility
- Contractility
♦ MUSCLES FOR ARM
MOVEMENTS
- Deltoid- Flexes and extends shoulders; laterally rotates arm
- Latissimus Dorsi- Extends shoulders; medially rotates arm
- Pectoralis Major - Extends shoulders from flexed positions; medially rotates arm
- Teres Major- Extends shoulders; adducts arm
- Biceps Brachii- Flexes elbow, supinates forearm; flexes shoulder
- Brachialis- Flexes elbow
- Triceps- Extends elbow; extends brachi shoulder; adducts arm
♦ MUSCLES ACTING ON THE
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
- Erector Spinae Muscles - is a group of muscles that work together to extend the vertebral column, thus maintaining good posture. Has 3 parts Iliocostalis- most lateral among the three parts.Extends the vertebral column Longissimus- Located between the spinalis and illiocostalis. Extends the vertebral column and neck.
Spinalis- This group is most medial of the three. Originate on vertebrae and insert
on more superior vertebrae.
2. Deep back muscles - extends the vertebral column and help bend the vertebral column laterally.
♦ MUSCLES OF THORAX
1. Scalenes- From the cervical vertebrae to the first and second ribs. - Inspiration ; elevate ribs 2. External intercostals- These muscles are responsible for forced and quiet inhalation. - They raise the ribs and expand the chest cavity. 3. Internal intercostals - These muscles are responsible for forced exhalation. - They depress the ribs and decrease space in the chest cavity. 4. Diaphragm – is the primary muscle used in the process of inspiration, or inhalation. - Depresses floor of the thorax. 5. Rectus abdominis- Long paired muscles found on either side of the midline in the abdominal walls. - Flexes the vertebral column. 6. External abdominal oblique
- The external oblique is the largest and most superficial flat muscle in the abdominal wall. 7. Internal abdominal oblique - The internal oblique lies deep to the external oblique. - It is smaller and thinner in structure. 8. Transversus abdominis - is the deepest of the flat muscles, with transversely running fibres. - Its function is the compression of abdominal contents.
♦ MUSCLES OF THE PELVIC FLOOR
- Pelvic Floor- Elevates anus; supports pelcis viscera
- Perinium Bulbospongiosus - Constricts urethra, erects penis (male), erects clitoris(female)
- Ischiocavernosus- Compresses base of penis or clitoris
- External anal sphincter - Keeps orifice of anal canal closed.
- Transverse perinei Deep - Supports pelvic floor
- Superficial Transverse Perineal- Fixes central tendon
♦ MUSCLES OF THE ARM AND
FOREARM
- Biceps brachii – Flexes elbow; supinates forearm; flexes shoulder. 2. Brachialis – Flexes elbow. 3. Triceps brachii – flexes elbow; extends shoulder; adducts arm.
♦ UPPER ARM AND FOREARM
MUSCLES
- Pronator Teres : A muscle of the anterior compartment of the forearm that controls pronation.
- Supinator: A muscle of the posterior compartment of the forearm that controls supination.
- Pronator Quadraturs: A muscle of the anterior compartment of the forearm that controls pronation.
- Brachioradialis: A muscle of the posterior compartment of the forearm that flexes the forearm.
- Biceps Brachii: A muscle of the anterior compartment of the upper arm that flexes the forearm.
- Triceps Brachii: A muscle of the posterior compartment of the upper arm that extends the forearm.
The hand has several muscles. Some make broad, smooth movements, and others make small, finite movements. Muscles that move the wrist, hand, and fingers can be extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic – are muscles in the forearm that are not originally part of the hand but conribute to the movement of the hand.
