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4 Anatomy^ of the Human Heart
ANTHONY J. WEINHAUSr PhD AND KENNETH P. ROBERTS,PhD
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
POSITIONOF THE HEART IN THE THORAX
THE PERICARDIUM
INTERNALANATOMYOF THE HEART
THE CARDIACSKELETON
THE FETAL HEART
OTHER FETAL REMNANTS
VASCULATUREOF THE HEART
AUTONOMICINNERVATIONOF THE HEART
COMPANIONCD MATERIAL
REFERENCES
SOURCES
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
The heart is a muscular pump that serves two functions: (1) to collect blood from the tissues of the body and pump it to the lungs and (2) to collect blood from the lungs and pump it to all tissues of the body. The human heart lies in the protective tho- rax, posterior to the sternum and costal cartilages, and rests on the superior surface of the diaphragm. The heart assumes an oblique position in the thorax, with two-thirds to the left of midline. It occupies a space between the pleural cavities called
the middle mediastinum, defined as the space inside the pericar-
dium, the covering around the heart. This serous membrane has inner and outer layers, with a lubricating fluid in between. The fluid allows the inner visceral pericardium to "glide" against the outer parietal pericardium. The internal anatomy of the heart reveals four chambers composed of cardiac muscle or myocardium. The two upper chambers (or atria) function mainly as collecting chambers; the two lower chambers (ventricles) are much stronger and function to pump blood. The role of the right atrium and ventricle is to collect blood from the body and pump it to the lungs. The role
From: Handbookof Cardiac Anatomy, Physiology,and Devices Edited by: P. A. Iaizzo © Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ
of the left atrium and ventricle is to collect blood from the lungs and pump it throughout the body. There is a one-way flow of blood through the heart; this flow is maintained by a set of four valves. The atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and bicuspid) allow blood to flow only from atria to ventricles. The semilunar valves (pulmonary and semilunar) allow blood to flow only from the ventricles out of the heart and through the great arteries. A number of structures that can be observed in the adult heart are remnants of fetal circulation. In the fetus, the lungs do not function as a site for the exchange of oxygen and carbon diox- ide, and the fetus receives all of its oxygen from the mother. In the fetal heart, blood arriving to the right side of the heart is passed through specialized structures to the left side. Shortly after birth, these specialized fetal structures normally collapse, and the heart takes on the "adult" pattern of circulation. How- ever, in rare cases, some fetal remnants and defects can occur. Although the heart is filled with blood, it provides very little nourishment and oxygen to the tissues of the heart. Instead, the tissues of the heart are supplied by a separate vascular supply committed only to the heart. The arterial supply to the heart arises from the base of the aorta as the right and left coronary arteries (running in the coronary sulcus). The venous drainage is via cardiac veins that return deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.
52 PART I1: ANATOMY / WEINHAUS AND ROBERTS
Fig. 1. Position of the heart in the thorax. The heart lies in the protective thorax, posterior to the stemum and costal cartilages, and rests on the superior surface of the diaphragm. The heart assumes an oblique position in the thorax, with two-thirds to the left of midline. It is located
between the two lungs, which occupy the lateral spaces called the pleural cavities. The space between these two cavities is referred to as the
mediastinum. The heart lies obliquely in a division of this space, the middle mediastinum, surrounded by the pericardium. (Figs. 18.2 a, b, c,
p. 523 from Human Anatomy, 3rd Ed. by Elaine N. Marieb and Jon Mallatt. © 2001 by Benjamin Cummings. Reprinted by permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.)
The heart is a muscular pump that serves two functions: (1) to collect oxygen-poor blood from the tissues of the body and pump this blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen and release carbon dioxide and (2) to collect oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pump this blood to all of the tissues of the body. It is important to note that, besides pumping oxygen-rich blood to the tissues of the body for exchange of oxygen for carbon dioxide, the blood also circulates many other important substances. Nutrients from digestion are collected from the small intestine and pumped through the circulatory system to be delivered to all cells of the body. Hormones are produced from one type of tissues and distributed to all cells of the body. The circulatory system carries waste materials (salts, nitrogenous wastes, and excess water) from cells to the kidneys, where they are extracted and passed to the bladder. The pumping of inter- stitial fluid from the blood into the extracellular space is an important function of the heart. Excess interstitial fluid is then returned to the circulatory system via the lymphatic system.
2. P O S I T I O N O F T H E H E A R T I N T H E T H O R A X The heart lies in the protective thorax, posterior to the ster- num and costal cartilages, and rests on the superior surface of the diaphragm. The thorax is often referred to as the thoracic
cage because of its protective function of the delicate struc- tures within. The heart is located between the two lungs, which
occupy the lateral spaces, called thepleural cavities. The space
between these two cavities is referred to as the mediastinum
("that which stands in the middle"; Fig. 1). The mediastinum is divided first into the superior and infe- rior mediastinum by a midsagittal imaginary line called the
transversethoracicplane. This plane passes through the sternal
angle (junction of the manubrium and body of the sternum) and the space between thoracic vertebrae T4 and T5. This plane acts as a convenient landmark because it also passes through the following structures: the bifurcation of the trachea, the superior border of the pericardium, the base of the aorta, and the bifur- cation of the pulmonary trunk. The human heart assumes an oblique position in the thorax, with two-thirds to the left of midline (Figs. 2 and 3). The heart is roughly in a plane that runs from the right shoulder to the left nipple. The base is located below the third rib as it approaches the sternum (note that the sternal angle occurs at the level of the second rib). The base is directed superiorly to the right of mid- line and posterior. The pointed apex projects to the left of mid- line and anterior. Thus, the heartbeat can be most easily palpated between the fifth and sixth ribs (just inferior to the left nipple)
54 PART I1: A N A T O M Y / W E I N H A U S A N D ROBERTS
Fig. 3. The anterior surface of the heart. The atria are positioned superior to (posterior to) and to the right of their respective ventricles. From superior to inferior, down the anterior surface of the heart, runs the anterior interventricular sulcus ("a groove"). This sulcus separates the left and right ventricles. The base of the heart is defined by a plane, called the atrioventricular groove or sulcus, that separates the atria from the ventricles. Note that the great arteries, aorta, and pulmonary trunk arise from the base of the heart. The right and left atrial appendages appear as extensions hanging off each atria. The anterior (superior) surface of the heart is formed primarily by the right ventricle. The right lateral border is formed by the right atrium, and the left lateral border by the left ventricle. The posterior surface is formed by the left ventricle and the left atrium, which is centered equally on the midline.
a serous fluid-secreting lining. As the heart migrates into the cavity, the serous lining wraps around the heart. This process can be described as similar to a fist pushed into a balloon (Fig. 4). Note that the fist is surrounded by balloon; however, the fist does not enter the balloon, and the balloon is still one continuous layer of material. These same properties are true for the pericardium. Furthermore, although it is one continuous layer, the peri- cardium is divided into two components. The part of the peri-
cardium that is in contact with the heart is called the visceral
pericardium (viscus = "internal organ") or epicardium (epi =
" u p o n " + "heart"). The free surface of the epicardium is cov- ered by a single layer o f fiat-shaped epithelial cells called
mesothelium. The mesothelial cells secrete a small amount o f
serous fluid to lubricate the m o v e m e n t o f the epicardium on the parietal pericardium. The epicardium also includes a thin layer of fibroelastic connective tissue, which supports the mesothelium, and a broad layer o f adipose tissue, which serves to connect the fibroelastic layer to the myocardium. The part
of the pericardium forming the outer border is called the pari-
etal pericardium (parietes = "walls"). The parietal pericar-
dium, in addition to a serous layer, also contains a fibrous or
epipericardial layer, referred to as the fibrous pericardium.
These layers contain collagen and elastin fibers to provide strength and some degree o f elasticity to the parietal pericar- dium.
CHAPTER 4 / ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN HEART 55
Inner layer - Visceral Pericardium
Fig. 4. The pericardium. The pericardium is the covering around the heart. It is composed of two distinct but continuous layers separated from
each other by a potential space containing a lubricating serous fluid. During embryological development, the heart migrates into the celomic
cavity, and a serous lining wraps around it, a process similar to a fist pushed into a balloon. Note that the balloon and the pericardium are one
continuous layer of material. The pericardium can be divided into the visceral pericardium (epicardium) and the parietal pericardium. A small
amount of serous fluid is secreted into the pericardial space to lubricate the movement of the epicardium on the parietal pericardium. The parietal
pericardium contains an epipericardial layer called the fibrous pericardium.
Inferiorly, the parietal pericardium is attached to the dia-
phragm. Anteriorly, the superior and inferior pericardiosternal
ligaments secure the parietal pericardium to the manubrium and
the xiphoid process, respectively. Laterally, the parietal peri-
cardium is attached to the parietal pleura (the covering of the
lungs). In the space between these layers, the phrenic nerve
(motor innervation to the diaphragm) and the pericardiac-
ophrenic artery and vein (supplying the pericardium and dia-
phragm) are found running together.
Under normal circumstances, only serous fluid exists between
the visceral and parietal layers in the pericardial space or cavity.
However, the accumulation of fluid (blood from trauma, inflam-
matory exudate following infection) in the pericardial space
leads to compression of the heart. This condition, called car-
diac tamponade ("heart" + tampon = "plug"), occurs when the
excess fluid limits the expansion of the heart (the fibrous peri-
cardium resists stretching) between beats and reduces the
ability to pump blood, leading to hypoxia (hypo = "low" +
oxygen") (Fig. 5).
Superiorly, the parietal pericardium surrounds the aorta and
pulmonary trunk (about 3 cm above their departure from the
heart) and is referred to as the arterial reflections or arterial
mesocardium; the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, and
pulmonary veins are referred to as the venous reflections or
venous mesocardium. The outer fibrous/epipericardial layer
merges with the outer adventitial layer of the great vessels. The
inner serous layer becomes continuous with the visceral peri-
cardium. The result of this reflection is that the heart hangs
"suspended" within the pericardial cavity.
Within the parietal pericardium, a blind-ended saclike recess
called the obliquepericardial sinus is formed from the venous
reflections of the inferior vena cava and pulmonary veins
(Fig. 6). A space called the transversepericardial sinus is
formed between the arterial reflections above and the venous
reflections of the superior vena cava and pulmonary veins
below. This sinus is important to cardiac surgeons in proce-
dures such as coronary artery bypass grafting, for which it is
important to stop or divert the circulation of blood from the
aorta and pulmonary trunk. By passing a surgical clamp or
ligature through the transverse sinus and around the great ves-
sels, the tubes of a circulatory bypass machine can be inserted.
Cardiac surgery is then performed while the patient is on car-
diopulmonary bypass. (For more details on the pericardium,
see Chapters 5 and 7.)
4. I N T E R N A l A N A T O M Y O F T H E H E A R T
A cross section cut through the heart reveals three layers
(Fig. 7): (1) a superficial visceral pericardium or epicardium
(epi = "upon" + "heart"); (2) a middle myocardium (myo =
"muscle" + "heart"); and (3) a deep lining called the "endocar-
dium" (endo ="within," derived from the endoderm layer of the
embryonic trilamina). The endocardium is a sheet of epithelium
called endothelium that rests on a thin layer of connective tissue
basement membrane. It lines the heart chambers and makes up
the valves of the heart.
The myocardium is the tissue of the heart wall and the layer
that actually contracts. The myocardium consists of cardiac
muscles in a spiral arrangement of myocardium that squeeze
blood through the heart in the proper directions (inferiorly
through the atria and superiorly through the ventricles). Unlike
all other types of muscle cells, cardiac muscle cells: (1) branch,
(2) join at complex junctions called intercalateddiscs so that
CHAPTER 4 / ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN HEART 57
A
t r a n s ~
1S
vein
B
sur~
ven~ sinus
~ary right p
veins oblique sinus
inferk v e r l a
diaphr
©IC,d ~. A m. L. Q S V i T. ~ S
Fig. 6. Pericardial sinuses. A blind-ended sac called the oblique pericardial sinus is formed from the venous reflections of the inferior vena cava and pulmonary veins. Another sac, the transverse pericardial sinus, is formed between the arterial reflections above and the venous reflections of the superior vena cava and pulmonary veins below.
58 PART I1: A N A T O M Y / W E I N H A U S A N D ROBERTS
MYOCARDIUM
Cut edge of
.... ~ Dense fibrous layer
lt.~n= t..... (^) per~.ardiumParietal dlum
Peacard~
cavity
x:++ Connective tissues
..... - " " ..... " " ~ ' ~ - : : ~ ~ , -,,~rz ~ - ~ " ~ e ~ (visceral
-- - " ~ - + ~ ~ ~(~lar connoetiv porlea~ium)
Atdeciorview ~ i ' .; '. j'. ~~. ' •. ~ tts.st~ J
Sectional view
A~e~ connective
tissue ~ ENDOCARDIUM
•-'- Endo~elium J
Fig. 7. Internal anatomy of the heart. The walls of the heart contain three layers: the superficial epicardium; the middle myocardium, which is composed of cardiac muscle; and the inner endocardium. Note that cardiac muscle cells contain intercalated disks that enable the cells to communicate and allow direct transmission of electrical impulses from one cell to another. (Fig. 21.3, p. 553 from Human Anatomy, 4th Ed. by Frederic H. Martini, Michael J. Timmons, and Robert B. Tallitsch. © 2003 by Frederic H. Martini, Inc. and Michael J. Timmons.)
4. 1. C a r d i o p u l m o n a r y C i r c u l a t i o n
To understand the internal anatomy of the heart, its func- tion must be understood. The heart has two primary functions: (1) to collect oxygen-poor blood and pump it to the lungs for release of carbon dioxide in exchange for oxygen, and (2) to collect oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pump it to all tissues in the body to provide oxygen in exchange for carbon dioxide. The four chambers in the heart can be segregated into the left and the right side, each containing an atrium and a ventricle. The right side is responsible for collecting oxygen-poor blood and pumping it to the lungs. The left side is responsible for collecting oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumping it to all tissues in the body. Within each side, the atrium is a site for the collection of blood before pumping it to the ventricle. The ventricle is much stronger, and it is a site for the pumping of blood out and away from the heart (Fig. 8). The right ventricle is the site for the collection of all oxygen- poor blood. The large superior and inferior venae cavae, among other veins, carry oxygen-poor blood from the upper and lower parts of the body to the right atrium. The right ventricle pumps the blood out of the heart and through the pulmonary trunk. The term trunk is a term that indicates an artery that bifurcates. The pulmonary trunk bifurcates into the left and right pulmonary arteries that enter the lungs. It is important to note that the term artery is always used for a vessel that carries blood away from the heart. This is irrespective of the oxygen content of the blood that flows through the vessel. Once oxygenated, the oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart from the right and left lung through the right and left pulmonary
veins, respectively (vein, a vessel carrying blood toward the heart). Each pulmonary vein bifurcates before reaching the heart. Thus, there are four pulmonary veins that enter the left atrium. Oxygen-rich blood is pumped out the heart by the left ventricle and into the aortic artery. The right side of the heart, the pulmonary artery, and pulmonary veins are part of the pul- monary circuit. This is because of their role in collecting blood
from the tissues of the body and pumping it to the lungs (pttlmo
= "lungs"). The left side of the heart, the aortic artery, and the venae cavae are part of the systemic circuit. This is because of their role in collecting blood from the lungs and pumping it to all of the tissues of the body Observing the heart from a superior viewpoint, the pulmo- nary trunk assumes the left, most anterior location projecting upward from the base of the heart. The aorta assumes a central location, and the superior vena cava is in the right, most pos- terior location. The general pattern of blood flow through the heart is shown in Fig. 9. Note that the function of atria is generally to collect; the function of ventricles is to pump. The right side is involved in pulmonary circulation, and the left side is involved in the systemic circulation. There is a unidi- rectional flow of blood through the heart; this is accomplished by valves.
4. 2. The Right A t r i u m
The interior of the right atrium has three anatomically dis- tinct regions, each a remnant of embryological development (Fig. 10): (1) The posterior portion of the right atrium has a smooth wall and is referred to as the sinus venarum (embryo- logically derived from the right horn of the sinus venosus);
60 PART Ih ANATOMY / WEINHAUS AND ROBERTS
t
Structures at Day 22: Structures in the Adult
Truncus artertosus: Pulmonary trunk Aortic arch
Bulbis cordis: Right Ventricle Conus arteriosus (infundibulum) Interventricular sulcus: Interventricular sulcus
Primitive Ventricle (strongest pumping): Left Ventricle
Atrioventricu/ar su/cus: Atrioventricular sulcus
Primitive Atrium (pumping): Pectinate part of Right Atrium Right and Left Auricles*
Cnsta Terminalis: Crista Terminalis
Sinus venosus ("Pacemaker"): Smooth part of Right Atrium (sinus venarum) SA node Fossa ovalis Coronary sinus Superior vena cava inferior vena cava
*Incorporation of the Pulmonary veins into the primitive atrium completes the smooth-walled part of the future Left Atrium, and causes pectinate areas to migrate and form the Left Auricle.
Fig. 10. Embryonic origin of the internal anatomy of the heart. The embryonic heart at day 22 is a linear heart tube. At this time, there are four divisions, and each contains structures that will remain associated with the division throughout development. During development, the linear tube folds to form two superior chambers (atria) and two inferior chambers (ventricles). SA, sinoatrial.
(2) the wall of the anterior portion of the right atrium is lined by horizontal, parallel ridges of muscle bundles that resemble
the teeth of a comb, hence the name pectinatemuscle(pectin
= "a comb," embryologically derived from the primitive right atrium); and (3) the atrial septum (primarily derived from the embryonic septum primum and septum secundum). For more details on the embryology of the heart, refer to Chapter 2. The purpose of Fig. 10 is to demonstrate that the smooth posterior wall of the right atrium holds most of the named struc- tures of the right atrium. It receives both the superior and infe- rior venae cavae and the coronary sinus. It also contains the fossa ovalis, the sinoatrial node, and the atrioventricular node. The inferior border of the right atrium contains the opening or ostium of the inferior vena cava and the os or ostium of the coronary sinus (Fig. 11). The coronary sinus is located on the posterior (inferior) side of the heart and receives almost all of
the deoxygenated blood from the vasculature of the heart. The os of the coronary sinus opens into the right atrium anteriorly and inferiorly to the orifice of the inferior vena cava. A valve of the inferior vena cava (eustachian valve, a fetal remnant; Bartolommeo E. Eustachio, Italian Anatomist, 1520-1574) guards the orifice of the inferior vena cava. The valve of the coronary sinus (Thebesian valve; Adam C. Thebesius, German physician, 1686 to 1732) covers the opening of the coronary sinus to prevent backflow. Both of these valves vary in size and presence. For more details on the valves of the heart, refer to Chapter 27. These two venous valves insert into a prominent ridge, the sinus septum (eustachian ridge), which runs medial- lateral across the inferior border of the atrium and separates the os of the coronary sinus and inferior vena cava. On the medial side of the right atrium, the interatrial septum (atrial septum) has interatrial and atrioventricular parts. The
CHAPTER 4 / ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN HEART 61
SAnod, linalis
openingo coronary sir
fossa ovali.~
tend, To¢
"I' ©I~N valveof'thecoronarysinus i-.:.-,,:: (Thebesian)
Fig. 11. Internal anatomy of the right atrium. The interior of the right atrium has three anatomically distinct regions: (1) the posterior portion, which has a smooth wall; (2) the wall of the anterior portion, which is lined by horizontal, parallel ridges of pectinate muscle; and (3) the atrial septum. IVC, inferior vena cava; SA, sinoatrial; SVC, superior vena cava.
valveof the [ I "~I" f ~. l L ~ , ,. ~ (TricuspidValveAnnulus) InferiorVenaC a v a ~ ~ _ _ 5
,! i! OsoftheCoronarySinus
Fig. 12. Koch's triangle: three landmarks used to triangulate the location of the atrioventricular node (Koch' s node) of the conduction system, including (1) coronary sinus, (2) atrioventricular opening, and (3) tendon of Todaro. Adapted from F. Anselme, B. Hook, K. Monahan, et al. (1966) Heterogeneity of retrograde fast-pathway conduction pattern in patients with atrioventricular nodal reentry tachycarda. Circulation 93, pp. 960-968.
fossa ovalis (a fetal remnant) is found in the interatrial part of the atrial septum. It appears as a central depression surrounded by a muscular ridge or limbus. The fossa ovalis is positioned anterior and superior to the ostia of both the inferior vena cava and the coronary sinus. A tendinous structure, the tendon of Todaro (Francesco Todaro, Italian anatomist, 1839-1918), connects the valve of the inferior vena cava to the central fibrous body (the right fibrous trigone ["triangle"]) as a fibrous extension of the membranous portion of the interventricular septum. It courses obliquely within the eustachian ridge and
separates the fossa ovalis above from the coronary sinus below. This tendon is a useful landmark in approximating the location of the atrioventricular node (conduction system). To approximate the location of the atrioventricular node, found in the floor of the right atrium and the atrial septum, it is necessary to form a triangle (triangle of Koch; Walter Koch, German Surgeon, unknown-1880) using lines that cross (1) the os of the coronary sinus posteriorly, (2) the right atrioventricu- lar opening anteriorly, and (3) the tendon of Todaro superiorly (Fig. 12).
CHAPTER 4 / ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN HEART 63
septal papillary mu~ nary tr valve
chordae teriosus tendineae bulum)
posterior )illary muscle
anterior papillary musc
loderator band
trabec.... carnae a n t e r i o r v i e w v ~.. ©! , C ~
Fig. 14. Internal anatomy of the right ventricle. Coarse trabeculae cameae characterize the walls of the right ventricle. The conus arteriosus makes up most of the outflow tract. The right atrioventricular or tricuspid valve is made up of three sets of cusps, cordae tendineae and papillary muscles.
of the ventricle in an anterior-superior direction and is rela- tively smooth walled. A component of the conus arteriosus forms part of the interventricular septum. This small septum, the infundibular (conal) septum, separates the left and right ventricular outflow tracts and is located just inferior to both semilunar valves. Four distinct muscle bundles, collectively
known as the semicircular arch, separate the outflow tract from
the rest of the right atrium.
4.3.1. Tricuspid Valve Blood is pumped from the right atrium through the atrioven- tricular orifice into the right ventricle. When the right ventricle contracts, blood is prevented from flowing back into the atrium by the right atrioventricular valve or tricuspid ("three cusps") valve. The valve consists of the annulus, three valvular leaflets, three papillary muscles, and three sets of chordae tendineae (Figs. 14 and 15). The atrioventricular orifice is reinforced by the annulus fibrosus of the cardiac skeleton (dense connective tissue). Medially, the annulus is attached to the membranous ventricular septum. The tricuspid valve has three leaflets: anterior (superior), posterior (inferior), and septal. The anterior leaflet is the larg-
est and extends from the medial border of the ventricular sep- turn to the anterior free wall. This, in effect, forms a partial separation between the inflow and outflow tracts of the right ventricle. The posterior leaflet extends from the lateral free wall to the posterior portion of the ventricular septum. The septal leaflet tends to be somewhat oval in shape and extends from the annulus of the orifice to the medial side of the inter- ventricular septum (on the inflow side), often including the membranous part of the septum. Papillary ("nipple") muscles contract and "tug" down on chordae tendineae ("tendinous cords") attached to the leaflets to secure them in place in preparation for the contraction of the ventricle. This is done to prevent the prolapse of the leaflets into the atrium. This is somewhat analogous to the tightening of the sails on a yacht in preparation for a big wind. Note that the total surface area of the cusps of the atrioventricular valve is approximately twice that of the respective orifice, so that considerable overlap of the leaflets occurs when the valves are in the closed position. The leaflets remain relatively close together even during ventricular filling. The partial approxi- mation of the valve surfaces is caused by eddy currents that prevail behind the leaflets and by tension exerted by the
64 PART I1: ANATOMY / WEINHAUS AND ROBERTS
a i
bicus
posterior U I ~ t U I ~
Fig. 15. Valves of the heart. During ventricular systole, atrioventricular valves close to prevent the regurgitation of blood from the ventricles into the atria. The right atrioventricular valve is the tricuspid valve; the left is the bicuspid valve. During ventricular diastole, the atrioventricular valves open as the ventricles relax, and the semilunar valves close. The semilunar valves prevent the backflow of blood from the great vessels into the resting ventricles. The valve of the pulmonary trunk is the pulmonary semilunar valve, and the aortic artery has the aortic semilunar valve. To the right of each figure are photographs of human cadaveric hearts.
chordae tendineae and papillary muscle. As the filling of the ventricle reduces, the valve leaflets float toward each other, but the valve does not close. The valve is closed by ventricular contractions, and the valve leaflets, which bulge toward the atrium but do not prolapse, stay pressed together throughout ventricular contraction (Fig. 15). The junction between two leaflets is called a commissure and is named by the two adjoin- ing leaflets (anteroseptal, anteroposterior, and posteroseptal). Each commissure contains a relatively smooth arc of valvular tissue delineated by the insertion of the chordae tendineae. There are three papillary muscles, just as there are three leaflets or cusps. The anterior papillary muscle is located in the apex of the right ventricle. This is the largest of the papillary muscles in the right ventricle, and it may have one or two heads. When this papillary muscle contracts, it pulls on chordae tendineae attached to the margins of the anterior and posterior
leaflets. The posterior papillary muscle is small and located in the posterior lateral free wall. When this papillary contracts, it pulls on chordae tendineae attached to the posterior and septal leaflets. The septal papillary muscle (papillary of the conus) arises from the muscular interventricular septum near the out- flow tract (conus arteriosus). This papillary muscle more often consists of a collection of small muscles in close proximity and has attachments to the anterior and septal valve leaflets. In ad- dition, chordae tendineae in this region may extend simply from the myocardium and attach to the valve leaflets directly without a papillary muscle (Fig. 14). The most affected is the septal leaflet, which has restricted mobility because of extensive chordae tendineae attachment directly to the myocardium. Near the anterior free wall of the right ventricle is a muscle bundle of variable size and the moderator band (occasionally absent). This muscle bundle extends from the interventricular
66 PART Ih ANATOMY / WEINHAUS AND ROBERTS
thick =
/alve of ~men ovale
smooth walled
anterior papillary mu
ary veins
chordae tendina¢
trabeculae carnae
Fig. 16. Internal anatomy of the left atrium and ventricle. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the left and right pulmonary veins. The pulmonary veins enter the heart as two pairs of veins inserting posteriorly and laterally. Anteriorly, the pectinate left auricle extends over the smooth-walled atrium. Most of the left lateral surface of the heart is formed by the left ventricle. Trabeculae carneae characterize the walls, and the myocardium is much thicker than the left ventricle. The interventricular septum bulges into the right ventricle, creating a barrel-shaped left ventricle.
The valve leaflets, which bulge toward the atrium, stay pressed together throughout the contraction and do not prolapse. The junctions of the two leaflets are called the "anterolateral" and the "posteromedial" commissures. The line of apposition of the leaflets during valvular closure is indicated by a fibrous ridge.
There are two distinct papillary muscles of the left ventricle that extend from the ventricular free wall toward and perpen- dicular to the atrioventricular orifice. The anterior papillary muscle is typically slightly larger than the posterior, and each papillary muscle consists of a major trunk that often has mul-
CHAPTER 4 / ANATOMY OF THE H U M A N HEART 67
Mitre
lit
Fig. 17. The mitral valve. The mitral (left atrioventricular or bicuspid) valve is so named because of its resemblance to a cardinal's hat, known as a mitre. Left: Photo of the Pope that appears on the Vatican Web site.
tiple heads from which extend the chordae tendineae. The chordae tendineae of each papillary muscle extend to the two valvular commissures and to the multiple crescent shapes of the posterior cusp. Thus, each papillary muscle pulls on chordae from both leaflets. In addition, the posterior leaflet has occa- sional chordae that extend simply from the ventricular myocar- dium without a papillary muscle (similar to the septal papillary muscle of the right ventricle).
4.5.2. Aortic Semilunar Valve
During ventricular systole, blood is pumped from the left ventricle into the aortic artery to all of the tissues of the body. When the left ventricle relaxes in diastole, blood is prevented from flowing back into the ventricle by the aortic semilunar valve (Figs. 15 and 16). Like the pulmonary semilunar valve, the aortic valve is composed of three symmetric, semilunar-shaped cusps; each cusp acts like an upside-down parachute facing into the aortic artery, opening as it fills with blood. The filled space or recess of each cusp is called the sinus of Valsalva. On com- plete filling, the three cusps contact each other and block the flow of blood. Each of the three cusps is attached to an annulus ("ring") such that the cusp opens into the lumen, forming a U-shape. The cusps are firmly anchored to the fibrous skeleton within the root of the aorta. A circular ridge on the innermost aspect of the aortic wall, at the upper margin of each sinus, is the sinotubular ridge, the junction of the sinuses and the aorta.
At the sinotubular ridge, the wall of the aorta is thin, bulges slightly, and is the narrowest portion of the aortic artery. The cusps are named according to their orientation in the body: left and right (both facing the pulmonary valve) and posterior. Within the sinuses of Valsava, there are openings or ostia (os- tium = "door or mouth") into the blood supply of the heart called coronary arteries. These ostia are positioned below the sinotubular junction near the center of the sinuses. Only the two sinuses facing the pulmonary valve (left and right) have ostia that open into the left and right coronary arteries, respectively. Coronary arteries carry oxygenated blood to the myocardium of the heart. During ventricular diastole, the aortic valve snaps shut as pressure in the aorta increases. Under such pressure, the walls of the great artery distend, the sinuses fill, and blood is sent under great pressure through the coronary ostia into the coronary arteries. The posterior (noncoronary) sinus is in a position that abuts the fibrous skeleton and the annuli of both atrioventricular valves (Fig. 15). When the left ventricle contracts, the cusps collapse against the arterial wall as blood flows past them. When the ventricle rests (diastole), the cusps meet in the luminal center. As with the pulmonary valve, there is a small thickening on the center of the free edge of each cusp, at the point where the cusps meet. This nodule (of Arantius or Morgagni) ensures central valve closure. Radiating from this nodule around the free edge of the cusp is a ridge, the linea alba. This valve is exposed to
CHAPTER 4 / ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN HEART 69
pulmonary t r u n k ~
superior vena cava
P aorta Ductus arteriosus
Foramen ova
Valve (Eustachian]
Fig. 19. Fetal circulation. The fetal heart has unique features to shunt blood away from the relatively nonfunctional lungs: foramen ovale, ductus arteriosus, and valve (eustachian) of the inferior vena cava (IVC).
Before birth, pressure is higher in the right atrium than in the left because of the large vasculature from the placenta. The foramen ovale is a passage for blood to flow from the right atrium into the left. A second feature of the fetal heart is the ligament of the inferior vena cava. This ligament is located inferior to the opening of the vena cava and extends medially to atrial septum passing inferior to the foramen ovale. It is much
more prominent in the fetus than in the adult and functions in fetal circulation to direct, in a laminar flow, the blood coming into the right ventricle toward the foramen ovale, to pass into the left atrium. The third feature of fetal circulation is a way for oxygenated blood that has been pumped from the right atrium to the right ventricle to be diverted from the pulmonary circulation into the
70 PART Ih ANATOMY / WEINHAUS AND ROBERTS
31 oays
~
lmonary veins
Fig. 20. Chiari network. The ostia of the superior and inferior venae cavae, as well as the coronary sinus, incorporate into the smooth wall of the definitive right atrium. Two tissue flaps develop on the sides of the ostia as the left and right venous valves. The left valve eventually gives rise to the septum secundum (definitive interatrial septum); the right valve gives rise to the valve of the inferior vena cava (eustachian), the valve of the coronary sinus (Thebesian), and the crista terminalis. Incomplete resorption of the right valve of the embryonic sinus venosus leads to the presence of a meshwork of fibrous strands attached to the edges of the eustachian valve or the Thebesian valve inferiorly and
the crista terminalis superiorly. IVC, inferior vena cava; SVC, superior vena cava. Right: human cadaveric hearts. Left: from Human
Embryology, 2nd Ed. (1997), W. J. Larsen (ed.), Churchill Livingstone, Inc., New York, NY, p. 163, Fig. 7-12. © 1997, with permission
from Elsevier.
systemic circulation. Despite the shunt from the right atrium to the left, much of the oxygenated blood that enters the right atrium gets pumped into the right ventricle. The ductus arterio- sus ("duct of the artery") is a connection between the left pul- monary artery and the aortic artery so that very little blood reaches the immature lungs. Because the pulmonary vascular resistance of the fetus is large, only one-tenth of right ventricu- lar output passes through the lungs. The remainder passes from the pulmonary artery through the ductus arteriosus to the aorta. In the fetus, the diameter of the ductus arteriosus can be as large as that of the aorta. Shortly after birth, the umbilical cord is cut, and the new- born takes a first breath. Rising concentrations of the hormone prostaglandin are believed to result in the closure of the ductus arteriosus (forming then the ligamentum arteriosum), and the lungs receive much more blood. The increase in pressure is translated to the left atrium; this pressure pushes together the two valve flaps of the foramen ovale (fossa ovalis), closing them and preventing the flow of blood from the right to the left atrium.
7. OTHER FETAL REMNANTS
7.1. Chiari Network
Between 3 and 4 weeks of fetal development, the openings of the superior and inferior venae cavae and future coronary sinus are incorporated into the posterior wall of the right atrium and become the sinus venarum (smooth) portion of the right atrium. A pair of tissue flaps, the left and right venous valves, develops on either side of the three ostia.
The left valve eventually becomes part of the septum secun- dum (which becomes the definitive interatrial septum). The right valve remains intact and forms the valve of the inferior vena cava (eustachian), the crista terminalis, and the valve of the coronary sinus (Thebesian) (Fig. 20). Infrequently, incomplete resorption of the right valve of the sinus venosus may lead to the presence of a meshwork of fibrous strands attached to the edges of the eustachian valve or Thebesian valve inferiorly and the crista terminalis superi-
orly. This is called a Chiari net or network (Fig. 20). Remnants
of the other valve, the left sinus venosus valve, may be found adherent to the superior portion of the atrial septum or the fossa ovalis. For more information on this topic, refer to Chap- ters 2 and 6.
7.2. Septal Defects
7.2.1. Atrial Septal Defect
The first step in the separation of the systemic and pulmo- nary circulation in the fetal heart is the separation of the defini- tive atrium. The adult interatrial septum is formed by the fusion of two embryonic septa. However, note that right-to-left shunt- ing of oxygenated blood remains. Between 3 and 4 weeks of development, the roof of the atrium becomes depressed and produces a wedge of tissue
called the septumprimum ("first partition") that extends infe-
riorly. During the fifth week, the crescent-shaped septum reaches the floor, thus separating the right and left atria and
forming along its free edge a foramen, ostiumprimum ("first
mouth/opening"). At the end of the sixth week, the growing
