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How do amphibians regulate heat? -------------------------------------They produce little heat and lose it rapidly by evaporative cooling. Behavioral adaptations help such as seeing warmer/cooler environments. Mucus helps with cooling. How do reptiles regulate heat? -------------------------------------They are ectotherms and warm themselves by behavioral adaptations. But a few are endothermic for periods (female pythons that shiver when incubating eggs). How do fish regulate heat? -------------------------------------Fish are generally ectothermic but some are endothermic. Endothermic fish help reduce heat loss by keeping swimming muscles several degrees warmer. How do invertebrates regulate heat? -------------------------------------Aquatic ones are thermoconformers with little control over body temp. Terrestrial ones adjust by behavioral (temp reg in bees in swarms) and physiological (generate heat) mechanisms. Osmosis -------------------------------------Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
Hyperosmotic solution -------------------------------------Higher solute (salt) concentration and lower free H20 concentration. Water flows into the solution. Hypoosmotic solution -------------------------------------Lower solute (salt) concentration, higher free H20 concentration. Water flows out of the solution. Isoosmotic solution -------------------------------------No net water movement How does water flow by osmosis? -------------------------------------Flows from low concentration of solute to high concentration of solute. Osmoconformers -------------------------------------isoosmotic with their surroundings and do not regulate their osmolarity, mostly marine animals Osmoregulators -------------------------------------expend energy to control water uptake and loss, many marine vertebrates Osmoregulation -------------------------------------Controlled movement of solutes between the internal fluids and the external environment - as well as the movement of water. Net movement of water requires an osmotic gradient - requires energy. Pros: permits animals to live in a variety of habitats Cons: energy expensive
What are the key functions of most excretory systems? -------------------------- -----------1. Filtration
- Modification
- secretion: adding toxins and other solutes from the body fluids to the filtrate
- reabsorption: reclaiming valuable solutes
- Excretion: removing the filtrate form the system Mammalian kidney -------------------------------------Function in both excretion and osmoregulation. They conserve water by producing urine that is much more concentrated than body fluids (solute/salt gradients) Protonephridia excretory system -------------------------------------Network of dead-end tubules connected to external openings. Smallest branches capped by a cellular united called a flame bulb. Freshwater flatworms, parasitic flatworms, some annelids and mollusc larvae Metanephridia excretory system -------------------------------------Functions in excretion and osmoregulation. Each segment has a pair of open-ended metanephridia. Tubules collect coelomic fluid and produce dilute urine for excretion. Earthworms Malpighian tubules -------------------------------------Tubules remove nitrogenous wastes from hemolymph and function in osmoregulation. Secretes dry waste matter which is an important adaptation to terrestrial life.
Insects and other terrestrial arthropods Nephrons -------------------------------------A single long tubule that is essential to the filtration process in mammalian kidneys Circulatory systems link ... -------------------------------------exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body Why might some animals not have circulatory systems? ------------------------- ------------Some small and/or thin animals may have cells that can exchange materials directly with their environment. What are the 3 basic components of circulatory systems? ----------------------- --------------1. Circulatory fluid (blood or hemolymph)
- A set of tubes (blood vessels)
- Muscular pump (heart) Open circulatory system -------------------------------------Circulatory fluid bathes the organs directly. There is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid (hemolymph). This is less costly, lower hydrostatic pressure and other functions like movement. Insects, other arthropods, and most mollusks Closed circulatory system -------------------------------------Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from interstitial fluid. These systems allow higher blood pressure which helps oxygen to circulate and delivers nutrients,
- mammals & birds are endotherms that require more O2 than ectotherms **need more complex system to keep up with oxygen requirement & endothermic system Fish gills what kind of exchange system? ------------------------------------- Counter current exchange system. Blood flows in the opposite direction to water passing over the gills. Respiratory medias -------------------------------------O2 is abundant in air, but scarce in water (40 times less). Thus, organisms living in marine environments need highly efficient respiratory systems. Homeostatic regulation -------------------------------------autoregulation (intrinsic regulation)-body adjust automatically to some environmental changes extrinsic regulation- nervous and endocrine system adjust the activities of many systems simultaneously Passive vs active transport -------------------------------------passive transport doesn't use ATP, with a concentration gradient active transport does use ATP and is against a concentration gradient Diffusion -------------------------------------down a concentration gradient Osmosis -------------------------------------diffusion of water across the cell membrane
Osmotic pressure -------------------------------------force of concentration gradient on water Facilitated diffusion -------------------------------------either carrier or channel mediated Endocrine glands -------------------------------------no ducts secrete hormones Transmembrane potential -------------------------------------unequal charge across cell membrane created by transmembrane potential Exocrine glands -------------------------------------have ducts produce secretions 4 types of membranes -------------------------------------mucous, serous, cutaneous, synovial 3 types of muscle -------------------------------------skeletal (somatic ns), cardiac (autonomic ns), smooth (autonomic ns) 2 systems that function in control and communication in the body to maintain proper functioning -------------------------------------endocrine and nervous system
Afferent nerve fibers -------------------------------------send impulses towards central nervous system, called sensory nerve fibers as a result Efferent nerve fibers -------------------------------------send impulses away from CNS, called motor nerve fibers as a result Somatic nervous system -------------------------------------part of conscious movement/voluntary movement, part of PNS, controls skeletal muscle Autonomic nervous system -------------------------------------part of involuntary movement, part of PNS, controls smooth and cardiac muscle 4 structural classifications of neurons -------------------------------------anaxonic- no distinction between dendrites and axon bipolar neurons- dendrites to axon to soma to axon unipolar neurons- dendrites to axon to soma at end multipolar neurons- multiple dendrites to soma to axon 4 neural tissue -------------------------------------ependymal cells- secrete cerebral spinal fluid microglial cells- wandering police force astrocytes- maintain blood-brain barrier oligodendrocytes- CNS, schwann cells are PNS 3 functional classifications of neurons -------------------------------------sensory neurons- afferent motor neurons- efferent interneurons- associated neurons
Sensory neurons -------------------------------------unipolar, afferent/carry information to CNS, soma are located in peripheral nervous system ganglia Ganglion -------------------------------------nerve cell bodies clustered in peripheral nervous system 2 sensory neuron types -------------------------------------somatic sensory neurons: monitor effects of external environment visceral sensory neurons: monitor internal environment 3 types of sensory neurons -------------------------------------exteroceptors: monitor external environment proprioceptors: monitor position and movement of body interoceptors: monitor internal organs/body Motor neurons -------------------------------------efferent neurons, bring information from CNS to PNS somatic motor neurons- control movement of skeletal muscle (part of somatic nervous system) visceral motor neurons- control all other peripheral effectors other than skeletal muscle (part of autonomic nervous system) Explain sodium potassium pump -------------------------------------resting potential, depolarization, peak, polarization, hyperpolarization, resting potential (go in detail)
refractory period -------------------------------------hyperpolarization, action potential cannot be initiated during this time absolute refractory period- brief period of stimulus resistance relative refractory period- action potential will only respond to very strong stimulus 2 types of propagation of action potentials ------------------------------------- continuous- occurs on unmyelinated axons, slow saltatory propagation- occurs on myelinated axons, happens rapidly, action potentials jump from node to node between myelin (nodes of ranvier), uses less energy graded potential vs action potential -------------------------------------graded potentials are dependent on the size of the stimulus and happen locally and die out as they get further from stimulation site, graded potentials happen in most cell membranes action potentials propagate all the way down axon (continuous or saltatory) and are all-or-nothing, the size of stimulus does not affect size of action potential, action potentials happen in specialized cells such as neurons and muscle cells synaptic transmission -------------------------------------action potential gets to end of axon, pre-synaptic neuron releases chemical messenger across synapse to post synaptic neuron to continue propagation of nerve impulse types of synapse -------------------------------------electrical- rare, in brain/eye, cells joined by gap junctions, quickly and efficiently chemical-presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters across synapse
neurotransmitters -------------------------------------chemical messengers of nervous system released by presynaptic neuron affect receptors of post synaptic neuron broken down by enzymes reassembled at the synaptic knob classes of neurotransmitters -------------------------------------excitatory neurotransmitters: cause depolarization of membrane, cause action potentials to happen inhibitory neurotransmitters: cause hyperpolarization of the membrane, (cause a refractory period), suppress action potentials 3 major parts of brain -------------------------------------hindbrain- pons, medulla oblongata, cerebellum midbrain forebrain- diencephalon-thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus telencephalon- 4 lobes of brain (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital) spinal cord -------------------------------------ventral root- brings motor information out of spinal cord dorsal root- bring sensory information into spinal cord spinal nerve- single mixed nerve on either side where dorsal and ventral roots join together dorsal root ganglion- contains sensory nerve cell bodies ascending and descending tracts -------------------------------------carry information between brain and spinal cord has structural and functional purposes- all nerves in one tract originate and terminate in that tract and they all serve the same purpose tracts serve as integrator, or reflex center for all spinal reflexes
sensory receptor function -------------------------------------convert a stimulus to an action potential that can be conducted to the CNS generalized senses classifications -------------------------------------nociceptors: pain receptors thermoreceptors: temperature receptors mechanoreceptors: tactile- touch, baroreceptors- pressure in blood vessels, proprioceptors- positions of joints and muscle chemoreceptors- chemical concentration olfactory organ layers -------------------------------------2 layers: olfactory epithelium: receptor proteins sensitive to chemicals dissolved in overlying mucus lamina propria: underlying protective areolar connective tissue layer, contains olfactory glands neural layer of retina -------------------------------------pigment part- thin outer layer, absorbs light neural part- thick inner layer, contains light receptors and associated neurons visual receptors -------------------------------------in neural part of eye-retina rods-detect light well cones- detect color macula lutea and fovea- fovea is in center of macula lutea and this is where the sharpest vision occurs optic disk is blind spot in the eye bipolar cells here
the lens -------------------------------------the lens focuses a visual image on the photoreceptors through: refraction- bending light as it passed through cornea and lens accommodation- contraction of ciliary muscles around lens optic disk -------------------------------------blind spot in eye where axons of ganglion cells converge, including optic chiasm, optic nerves outer ear -------------------------------------pinna, external auditory meatus, tympanic membrane middle ear -------------------------------------malleus, incus, stapes, oval window, round window inner ear -------------------------------------semicircular canals (balance, rotation), cochlea (hearing), vestibule (has utricle and saccule, measures linear acceleration and gravity) 12 cranial nerves -------------------------------------olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, vestibulocochlear, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal ssmmbmbsbbmm come from pns mechanisms of intercellular communication ------------------------------------- direct communication-ions through gap junctions
peptide hormones lipid derivatives amine hormones -------------------------------------modified amino acids derived from tyrosine (catecholamines, thyroid hormone, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine) and tryptophan (melatonin and serotonin) amine hormones come from: thyroid hormone, derived from tyrosine, comes from thyroid gland epinephrine and norepinephrine, derived from tyrosine, come from adrenal medulla (sit on top of kidneys) melatonin, derived from tryptophan, comes from pineal gland serotonin, derived from tryptophan, comes from neuroendocrine system in CNS peptide hormones -------------------------------------chains of amino acids glycoproteins (>200aa) thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) luteinizing hormone (LH) follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) short chain polypeptides (<200aa) anything made in thymus, digestive tract, some in pituitary gland, hypothalamus, heart, pancreas lipid derivatives -------------------------------------eicosanoids
- derived from arachidonic acid
- includes prostaglandin steroid hormones
- derived from cholesterol
- produced by reproductive organs (androgens in testes and estrogen and progesterone in ovaries), adrenal glands (corticosteroids), and kidneys (calcitriol)
how hormones travel in blood -------------------------------------hormones are released into blood steroid hormones and thyroid hormones are hydrophobic, so they must travel along with a transport protein in blood there is a supply of bound hormones when hormones are unbound they last in blood <1 hour, either finding target cell receptor or diffusing out of bloodstream an equilibrium of free to bound hormones in blood cells hormone transport proteins -------------------------------------some are not selective as to what hormone they bind to, such as albumin others are selective such as sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG), and thyroid binding globulin (TBG) and transthyretin (TTR) hormone receptors and target cells -------------------------------------presence or absence of specific receptor determines hormonal sensitivity - > target cell
"lock and key" mechanism hormone fits into corresponding receptor on target cell and binds actions of hormones on target cells -------------------------------------receptor activation conversion response of the cell: synthesis, transport, secretion, contraction, breakdown combined hormone action -------------------------------------synergism: 2 hormones that come together and amplify response permissiveness: one hormone cannot elicit full response without other antagonism: 2 hormones that have opposing effects on each other, work to bring levels back to normal (ex, insulin and glucagon)
