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APHY 101 FINAL EXAM
- Question: What is the primary function of the mitochondria in a cell? Answer: The primary function of the mitochondria is to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell, through cellular respiration.
- Question: Describe the difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.
Answer: The sympathetic division prepares the body for "fight or flight" by increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and inhibiting digestion, among other responses. The parasympathetic division, in contrast, promotes "rest and digest" functions, decreasing heart rate, constricting pupils, and stimulating digestion.
- Question: Explain the process of muscle contraction according to the sliding filament theory. Answer: In the sliding filament theory, muscle contraction occurs when actin filaments slide over myosin filaments within the muscle fibers. This is triggered by the binding of calcium ions to troponin, which moves tropomyosin and exposes the myosin-binding sites on actin. Myosin heads then bind to these sites and pull the actin filaments, shortening the sarcomere and thus contracting the muscle.
- Question: What is the function of the human respiratory system? Answer: The function of the respiratory system is to facilitate the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the body and the environment. This occurs through the process of inhalation (bringing oxygen into the lungs) and exhalation (removing carbon dioxide from the body).
- Question: Name the four major types of tissue in the human body and provide one example of each. Answer: Epithelial tissue: Example - Skin epithelium, lining of the digestive tract.
Answer: The heart has four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. The right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation, while the left side pumps oxygenated blood to the body. The valves between chambers ensure unidirectional blood flow, and the muscular walls, particularly the left ventricle, generate the force needed to pump blood throughout the body.
- Question: What is the function of the kidneys in the human body? Answer: The kidneys filter waste products and excess substances from the blood, maintaining electrolyte balance, regulating blood pressure, and producing urine for excretion. They also help in the regulation of blood pH and red blood cell production.
- Question: Describe the process of digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Answer: Digestion in the small intestine involves the breakdown of food by enzymes, such as amylase, lipase, and proteases, produced by the pancreas and the intestine itself. Nutrients from digested food are absorbed through the villi and microvilli lining the small intestine into the bloodstream or lymphatic system.11. Question: What is the difference between isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions, and how do they affect a cell? Answer: Isotonic solution: Has the same concentration of solutes as the cell. Water moves in and out of the cell at the same rate, and the cell maintains its shape.
Hypertonic solution: Has a higher concentration of solutes than the cell, causing water to move out of the cell. This can lead to cell shrinkage (crenation). Hypotonic solution: Has a lower concentration of solutes than the cell, causing water to move into the cell. This can lead to the cell swelling and potentially bursting (lysis).
- Question: What are the primary functions of the skeletal system? Answer: The primary functions of the skeletal system include: Providing structure and support for the body. Protecting vital organs such as the brain, heart, and lungs. Facilitating movement through the attachment of muscles. Storing minerals like calcium and phosphorus. Producing blood cells in the bone marrow (hematopoiesis).
- Question: How does the structure of the neuron relate to its function? Answer: The structure of a neuron is adapted to its function in transmitting electrical signals: Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons. Cell body (soma): Contains the nucleus and integrates signals.
What is the role of the integumentary system? Answer: The integumentary system, consisting of the skin, hair, nails, and associated glands, serves several functions: Protection from physical damage, pathogens, and UV radiation. Regulation of body temperature through sweating and vasodilation/vasoconstriction. Sensory reception, detecting stimuli like temperature, pressure, and pain. Synthesis of vitamin D when exposed to sunlight.
- Question: How does the body maintain homeostasis of blood glucose levels? Answer: Blood glucose levels are regulated by insulin and glucagon, hormones secreted by the pancreas: Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake into cells and storage as glycogen in the liver. Glucagon raises blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to break down glycogen into glucose and release it into the bloodstream.
- Question: What is the role of the small intestine in nutrient absorption? Answer:
The small intestine is the primary site of nutrient absorption. The inner surface of the small intestine is lined with villi and microvilli, which increase the surface area for absorption. Nutrients such as amino acids, fatty acids, glucose, vitamins, and minerals are absorbed into the bloodstream or lymphatic system for transport throughout the body.
- Question: What is the role of the cerebellum in the brain? Answer: The cerebellum is responsible for coordinating voluntary movements, maintaining balance, and ensuring proper motor control. It fine-tunes movements and helps with posture and equilibrium.
- Question: What is the difference between active and passive transport? Answer: Active transport: Requires energy (ATP) to move substances against their concentration gradient, from low to high concentration (e.g., sodium-potassium pump). Passive transport: Does not require energy and involves the movement of substances along their concentration gradient, from high to low concentration (e.g., diffusion, osmosis).
- Question: What are the phases of the cell cycle? Answer: The cell cycle consists of the following phases:
Smooth muscle: Involuntary muscle found in the walls of internal organs, responsible for movements like digestion and blood vessel constriction.
- Question: What is the function of the adrenal glands? Answer: The adrenal glands produce hormones such as adrenaline (epinephrine) and cortisol, which are involved in the body’s stress response. They also help regulate metabolism, blood pressure, immune function, and salt and water balance.
- Question: Explain the difference between veins and arteries. Answer: Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure, typically oxygenated (except in the pulmonary circuit), and have thick muscular walls to withstand the pressure. Veins carry blood back to the heart under lower pressure, typically deoxygenated (except in the pulmonary circuit), and have thinner walls and valves to prevent backflow of blood.26. Question: What is the function of the respiratory membrane in the lungs? Answer: The respiratory membrane is the thin barrier between the alveoli and the capillaries in the lungs where gas exchange occurs. Oxygen from the alveoli diffuses into the blood, while carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses into the alveoli to be exhaled.
- Question:
What is the role of the hypothalamus in regulating homeostasis? Answer: The hypothalamus plays a key role in regulating homeostasis by controlling the body's internal environment. It regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, circadian rhythms, and the release of hormones through its connection with the pituitary gland.
- Question: How do antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and aldosterone help regulate blood pressure? Answer: ADH (antidiuretic hormone): Increases water reabsorption in the kidneys, which helps conserve water and increases blood volume, raising blood pressure. Aldosterone: Stimulates the reabsorption of sodium in the kidneys, which leads to water retention, thus increasing blood volume and blood pressure.
- Question: What is the process of synaptic transmission? Answer: Synaptic transmission involves the following steps: An action potential reaches the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron. This triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, potentially triggering a new action potential.
- Question: What are the primary functions of the kidneys? Answer: The kidneys are responsible for: Filtering waste products and excess substances from the blood to form urine. Regulating electrolyte balance by controlling sodium, potassium, and calcium levels. Maintaining blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Regulating the pH of blood. Producing erythropoietin to stimulate red blood cell production.
- Question: What are the components of the circulatory system? Answer: The circulatory system consists of: The heart: Pumps blood throughout the body. Blood vessels: Include arteries, veins, and capillaries. Blood: Composed of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
- Question: How do the kidneys regulate blood pressure? Answer:
The kidneys regulate blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS): When blood pressure drops, the kidneys release renin. Renin converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I, which is then converted to angiotensin II by an enzyme in the lungs. Angiotensin II constricts blood vessels and stimulates the release of aldosterone, which promotes sodium and water retention, increasing blood volume and blood pressure.
- Question: What is the role of hemoglobin in the blood? Answer: Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that binds to oxygen in the lungs and carries it through the bloodstream to tissues throughout the body. It also helps carry carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism, back to the lungs to be exhaled.
- Question: What is the primary function of the immune system? Answer: The immune system protects the body from harmful pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. It recognizes and attacks foreign substances while distinguishing them from the body’s own cells. It involves various components, including white blood cells, antibodies, and lymph nodes.
- Question: What are the different types of blood vessels, and what are their functions?
- Question: What is the role of the pituitary gland? Answer: The pituitary gland, often referred to as the "master gland," regulates the release of hormones from other endocrine glands. It controls functions like growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress responses by secreting hormones such as growth hormone (GH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
- Question: What is the difference between the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)? Answer: Central nervous system (CNS): Composed of the brain and spinal cord, it processes and interprets sensory information and coordinates motor responses. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Includes all nerves outside the CNS, connecting the CNS to the rest of the body. It has sensory and motor functions, transmitting signals between the CNS and the body.
- Question: What is the role of the cerebrum in the brain? Answer: The cerebrum is responsible for higher brain functions, including sensory processing, voluntary motor control, reasoning, problem-solving, emotion regulation, and language. It is divided into two hemispheres, each responsible for specific functions like speech or movement.
- Question: What are the differences between meiosis and mitosis? Answer: Mitosis is a type of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. It is used for growth and repair. Meiosis is a type of cell division that results in four non-identical daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. It is involved in the formation of gametes (sperm and eggs) for sexual reproduction.
- Question: What is the function of the large intestine? Answer: The large intestine absorbs water and salts from indigestible food matter and forms and stores feces. It also houses beneficial bacteria that aid in the fermentation of certain fibers and the production of vitamins like vitamin K.
- Question: What is the role of bile in digestion? Answer: Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. It emulsifies fats in the small intestine, breaking them down into smaller droplets to increase the surface area for digestion by lipase enzymes.46. Question: What is the function of the sebaceous glands in the skin? Answer:
stimulating energy production, and influencing growth, development, and temperature regulation.
- Question: What is the function of the Golgi apparatus in a cell? Answer: The Golgi apparatus processes, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum. It modifies proteins by adding carbohydrates (glycosylation) and then packages them into vesicles for transport to their destination.
- Question: How does the body defend itself against pathogens? Answer: The body defends itself through innate and adaptive immune responses: Innate immunity: Provides a rapid, nonspecific defense through physical barriers (like skin), inflammation, and the action of phagocytes and natural killer cells. Adaptive immunity: Involves specific responses by lymphocytes (B and T cells), which produce antibodies and destroy infected cells. It also creates immunological memory for future protection.
- Question: What is the role of the parathyroid glands? Answer: The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which helps regulate calcium levels in the blood. When calcium levels are low, PTH increases calcium
reabsorption from the kidneys, stimulates calcium release from bones, and increases calcium absorption from the intestines.
- Question: What is the function of the corpus callosum? Answer: The corpus callosum is a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing for communication between them. It plays a crucial role in coordinating activities between the left and right sides of the brain.
- Question: What is the function of the lymphatic vessels? Answer: Lymphatic vessels transport lymph, a fluid that contains white blood cells, from tissues back to the bloodstream. They are essential for immune function and help remove excess fluid from tissues, preventing swelling and edema.
- Question: What is the difference between white matter and gray matter in the brain? Answer: White matter: Composed primarily of myelinated axons, which allow for fast transmission of nerve signals between different regions of the brain. Gray matter: Consists of cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons, and is involved in processing and integrating information.
- Question: What are the main functions of the cerebellum?
