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Sociology – II
UNIT – I
NOTES FOR B.A LLB STUDENTS
Topics:
a. Descent: Patrilineal and Matrilineal, Comparative study of Northern and Southern Kinship
b. Concepts: Principles of Kinship, Consanguinity, Filiations, Incest Taboo and Affinity
c. Forms of Marriage; Monogamy/Polygamy; Endogamy/Exogamy; Sororate/Levirate
d. Forms of Family: Joint and Nuclear family
Descent: Matrilineal and Patrilineal
Descent system is one of the terms related to kinship system. Descent bind people of the same lineage together.
Types:
There are many categories of descent system. They are the Unilineal, Bilateral and Ambilineal descent system.
The Unilineal descent system
The Unilineal descent system could either be Patrilineal or Matrilineal decent system.
- Patrilineal Descent System
This descent system, also known as the “agnatic” descent system is the most common descent system that traces an individual to the father’s side or lineage. Authority and economic survival are vested on the men. The household in this type of society is male-headed which is also known as the patriarchal household. Both the male and the female children belong to their father’s lineage or kin and not the mother’s. This is why the children bear their father’s name, inherits from their father side and have all the entitlements attached to their father’s lineage. The residence is patrilocal, in patrilocal residency, the man with his immediate family members lives in his father’s house. This system is found among the Yoruba and most Igbo people of Nigeria
- Matrilineal Descent System
This system is also known as “uxorial” descent system. This type of descent system is not common as the patrilineal descent system. The children are traced to their mother’s lineage. The
means of survival is carried out mostly by the women. This system is not the direct opposite of the patrilineal system in terms of authority. The authority is vested on the men but the economic means of survival is by the women. The maternal uncle( brother of the mother) holds a vital role in social responsibilities and inheritance. He is the social father and has a stronger relationship with his sister’s children than the biological father of these children. The children pay more respect to their social father (maternal uncle) than to their biological father. The children born into such society inherits directly from their mother’s side, which is mostly from their maternal uncle. Here, the king’s biological son does not inherit the kingship from his father but instead, the king transfers his kingdom, title, and status to his sister’s son. The residence is matrilocal as the male child marries and lives in his mother’s house or matrilineal descent. Some parts of the Eastern Igbo in Abia state practice matrilineal descent system.
Principles of Kinship
Generation
Gender
Lineality Versus Collaterality
Consanguineal Versus Affinal Kin
Relative Age
Sex of the Connecting Relative
Social Condition
Side of the Family
Affinal Kinship:
The bond of marriage is called affinal kinship. When a person marries, he establishes relationship not only with the girl whom he marries but also with a number of other people in the girl’s family. Moreover, it is not only the person marrying who gets bound to the family members of the girl but his family members also get bound to the family members of the girl.
Thus, a host of relations are created as soon as a marriage takes place. For example, after marriage a person becomes not only a husband, but he also becomes brother-in-law and son-in- law. Here it may be noted that in English language a number of relations created by marriage are referred by the same term. Thus, the same term ‘brother-in-law is used for bahnoi, sala, jija and sadahu. On marriage a person also becomes foofa, nandoi and mausa.
Marriages are of different types across the world. Types of weddings are not to be confused with types of marriages, as weddings can of be of different types as per the community even if the type of marriage is Monogamous. Forms of marriage are also culturally driven and different types of marriages in the world are prevelant among varient societies. The types of marriages in sociology are as listed and explained below.
Polygyny
It is a form of marriage in which one man marries more than one woman at a given time. It is of two types --- Sororal polygyny and non sororal polygyny
Sororal polygyny
It is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the sisters. It is often called sororate.
Non-sororal polygyny
It is a type of marriage in which the wives are not related as sisters.
Polyandry
It is the marriage of one woman with more than one man. It is less common than polygyny. It is of two types---- Fraternal Polyandry and non fraternal polyandry.
Fraternal polyandry
When several brothers share the same wife the practice can be called alelphic or fraternal polyandry. This practice of being mate, actual or potential to one's husband's brothers is called levirate. It is prevalent among Todas.
Non - fraternal polyandry
In this type the husband need not have any close relationship prior to the marriage. The wife goes to spend some time with each husband. So long as a woman lives with one of her husbands; the others have no claim over her.
Monogamy
It is a form of marriage in which one man marries one woman .It is the most common and acceptable form of marriage.
Serial monogamy
In many societies individuals are permitted to marry again often on the death of the first spouse or after divorce but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and the same time. Straight monogamy:
In this remarriage is not allowed.
Group Marriage:
It means the marriage of two or more women with two or more men. Here the husbands are common husbands and wives are common wives. Children are regarded as the children of the entire group as a whole.
Rules of Marriage
No society gives absolute freedom to its members to select their partners. Endogamy and exogamy are the two main rules that condition marital choice.
Endogamy:
It is a rule of marriage in which the life-partners are to be selected within the group. It is marriage within the group and the group may be caste, class, tribe, race, village, religious group etc.We have caste endogamy, class endogamy, sub caste endogamy, race endogamy and tribal endogamy etc.In caste endogamy marriage has to take place within the caste. Brahmin has to marry a Brahmin. In sub caste endogamy it is limited to the sub caste groups.
Exogamy:
It is a rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group. It prohibits marrying within the group. The so-called blood relatives shall neither have marital connections nor sexual contacts among themselves.
Forms of exogamy:
Gotra Exogamy : The Hindu practice of one marrying outside one's own gotra.
Pravara Exogamy : Those who belong to the same pravara cannot marry among themselves.
Village Exogamy : Many Indian tribes like Naga,Garo,Munda etc have the practice of marrying outside their village.
Sociology – II
UNIT – II
NOTES FOR B.A LLB STUDENTS
Topics:
a. Sacred and Profane
b. Rites and Rituals
c. Communalism and Fundamentalism
d. Secularism
Religion:
Religion is one of the largest social institutions that sociologists study. Throughout history, religion has been a central part of all known human societies. Sociologists study religion to understand religious experiences around the world and how religion is tied to other social institutions. They study religion objectively, and their purpose is not to judge. They do not attempt to say whether any religion is right or wrong. Instead, sociologists try to determine why religions take a particular form and how religious activities affect society as a whole.
Sacred and Profone
Religion can be defined as a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on the sacred. To better understand this definition, let's also define two other terms: profane and sacred. We define most objects or experiences as profane, which is an ordinary element of everyday life. Objects, like beds, computers, and phones, are profane, as are experiences, like going to work or brushing our teeth. Beyond the profane, most of us also consider some things sacred, which is set apart as extraordinary or holy and worthy of honor. Objects, like the Bible and the cross, and experiences, like taking communion, are sacred to some people.
Rites and Rituals:
Rituals are typically formal social ceremonies that take place in a prescribed way, often in a sacred context. Rituals follow established customs, such as when those getting married say their vows to one another. These rituals convey information about the culture and about the participants of that culture. Those who attend recognize the ritual as having an important
meaning. Participating in a ritual provides an opportunity for an individual to fulfill a social commitment to their community of people.
A rite generally refers to a religious ritual that is an important part of a particular faith tradition: for example, the rite of baptism, or the rite of communion, which are both important to Christians. Also, some sociologists also use the word in the phrase “rite of passage,” referring to a ritual that marks a person’s transition from one part of their life to another— the Bar Mitzvah and Bat Mitzvah ritual among Jews marks the transition from childhood to adulthood, for example. In other words, a rite is something holy or sacred, often a long-standing tradition that is supervised by a member of the clergy or by a person considered holy by that society or religious group.
Fundamentalism and Communalism
Religious fundamentalism refers to the belief of an individual or a group of individuals in the absolute authority of a sacred religious text or teachings of a particular religious leader, prophet, and/ or God. These fundamentalists believe that their religion is beyond any form of criticism, and should therefore also be forced upon others. Logical explanations and scientific evidences have no place in these belief systems if they work against their religious fundamentalists. For fundamentalists, religion dictates every sphere of their daily lives, and they also attempt to involve the entire society into their own belief system, often by the use of force.
Communalism refers to a politics that seeks to unify one community around a religious identity in hostile opposition to another community. It seeks to define this community identity as fundamental and fixed. It attempts to consolidate this identity and present it as natural – as if people were born into the identity, as if the identities do not evolve through history over time. In order to unify the community, communalism suppresses distinctions within the community and emphasizes the essential unity of the community against other communities. One could say communalism nurtures a politics of hatred for an identified “other”—ex: “Hindus” in the case of Muslim communalism and “Muslims in the case of Hindu communalism. This hatred feeds a politics of violence. It is a particular kind of politicization of religious identity, an ideology that seeks to promote conflict between religious communities.
Secularism
The separation of religion and state is the foundation of secularism. It ensures religious groups don't interfere in affairs of state, and the state doesn't interfere in religious affairs.
Secularism seeks to ensure and protect freedom of religious belief and practice for all citizens. Secularists want freedoms of thought and conscience to apply equally to all – believers and non- believers alike. They do not wish to curtail religious freedoms. Secularism seeks to defend the
Sociology – II
UNIT – III
NOTES FOR B.A LLB STUDENTS
Topics:
a. Caste: Features, Mobility, Dominant Caste
b. Class and status: Marx and Weber
c. Gender: Equality, Neutrality and Third gender
Social stratification:
Caste: Features, Mobility, Dominant Caste
The word caste derives from the Spanish and Portuguese “casta”, means “race, lineage, or breed”. Portuguese employed casta in the modern sense when they applied it to hereditary Indian social groups called as ‘jati’ in India. ‘Jati’ originates from the root word ‘Jana’ which implies taking birth. Thus, caste is concerned with birth.
ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA
There is no certain date when the caste system came into existence in India. But according to the Manusmriti, the caste system in India was, in the beginning, a system of prescribing codes of conduct for people to suit the requirements of their occupation. Thus, it was based on their occupation. But gradually the occupation of people became hereditary and the caste system also changed from occupation to birth and heredity. Now caste of a person got fixed at the time of his/her birth and so was his/her social status.
As far as theory of origin of caste system is concerned, the religious theory explains that according the Rig Veda, which is one of the most sacred religious texts of Hindus, different Varnas were created from different parts of the primal Purusha’s (the First Person) body; the Brahmans were created from his head, the Kshatrias from his hands, the Vaishias from his thighs and the Sudras from his feet. Some theories also believe that the primal Purusha was nothing but the God Brahma himself. So according to them, different Varnas originated from lord Brahma.
CLASSIFICATION OF CASTES IN CASTE SYSTEM
Castes were first classified according to their occupation. But due to access to wealth, power, and privilege, two of the upper castes viz Brahmins and Kshatriyas started to use religious sanctions to monopolize their position. History tells us the same that the dominant position in society was monopolized by two main upper castes.
More or less, the situation is still the same. These two upper castes are considered as superior to the lower castes. And the sanction or validity to this superiority was provided by various religious writings so that no one should question this position. Such people in position of power like to perpetuate their strategic position by means of force or ritualistic customs.
As far as social stratification is concerned, the Brahmins, generally priests and scholars, are at the top. Next strata consist of the Kshatriyas, the ruling class and soldiers. Usually, the Kshatriyas collaborated with the Brahmins as they governed over their empire. A Kshatriya is branded by physical and martial strength.
Next in the hierarchy are the Vaishyas, or merchant class. It was the duty of the Vaishyas to ensure the community’s prosperity through agriculture, cattle rearing, trade and business. The Vaishyas were considered to be weak in comparison. And they were exploited for by their rulers. The luxurious lifestyle of the ruling class and wars etc were maintained on the cost of Vaishyas.
Then there were Shudras, the lowest in four Varnas. They are labourers, peasants, artisans, and servants. Shudras were believed to not have any special abilities and were considered only capable of serving as slaves to the upper three classes. They were having no rights or privileges, and were not permitted to perform any sacrifices or homa, read or learn the Vedas or recite the mantras. They were also not allowed even to enter into the temples and to participate in any religious rituals.
These discriminatory practices against so-called Sudras are still prevalent in our society in large measure.
Apart from these four Varnas, another section was there which was considered lowest of them all. They were ‘untouchables’, the outcastes; because they were not considered part of any of the said four Varnas. These ‘untouchables’ were there to perform such occupations that were considered unclean and polluting, such as scavenging and skinning dead animals. These were the most discriminated and exploited ones; all the four Varnas maintained distance from them. And it was considered as sin even if a shadow of an outcaste lied on anyone.
Caste Mobility:
Indian social reality has been analysed by social scientists in terms of social categories like caste, class, tribe and religious and linguistic groups. The same categories have been used for getting an insight into the process of change in the society. While earlier it was maintained that caste system keeps Indian society as a closed system, now it is said that the triangle of endogamy, hierarchy and pollution is breaking down (K.S. Singh, 1992:23).
The problem of social mobility is directly linked with the system of social stratification. Yogendra Singh is of the opinion that the tradition-modernity dichotomy in the studies of social mobility has often led to a confusion of perspectives. Such confusion was found among western
in village disputes. They decide the mode of rewards and punishment. They may determine civic and economic privileges.
- Dominant castes are the main power holders. They establish contacts with the outside government officials, elected representatives and political leaders. They influence the political process.
- Dominant castes because of their dominant position exploit all the developmental sources in their favour. They act as agents of rehabilitation programmes. They accelerate the process of socio-economic developments.
- The Dominant castes set values and norms for the community. Traditionally, its primary functions were Judicial, executive and legitimacy. They form the vital link between the villages and the other world. They also help in the socialisation process.
- Due to dominant position in rural society, they control the rural economy in various ways and means.
- Dominant castes play a greater role in the process of modernisation.
Class and status: Marx and Weber
A social class may be defined as a stratum of people of similar position in the social status. The social status of a janitor is not the same as that of the college president; a student will not greet them in exactly the same manner. People afford differential treatment owing to different classes. The members of a social class view each other as equals, while holding themselves to be socially superior to some and socially inferior to others. They are classified as similar in terms of values, norms and worldviews in life and also their economic status in term of their position in market economy.
Social classes arise out of consequences of ‘division of labour’. Each class defines social and economic position in community, including wealth and income, occupation, education, self- identification, hereditary prestige, groups’ participation and recognition by others.
KARL MARX
Class: a form of social stratification which is defined in purely economic terms. The relationships are analysed in terms of ownership and non ownership of means of production. The owners are the haves and the non owners are the have nots. Marx looked at classes as tangible collectives, as real social forces capable of changing the society. In a capitalist society Marx identified two classes of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
Class consciousness : originally used by Marx to describe a situation when the proletariat becomes aware of its ‘objective class position’ vis a vis the bourgeoisie. The proletariat will
develop from a ‘class in itself’(simple collection of workers sharing a common class position but with no collective awareness) to a ‘class for itself’ (workers with collective awareness).
MAX WEBER
Class and status groups
Unlike Marx, Weber believed that classes in society could be divided into more than just two. He argued that classes were divided on the basis of two similarities among people
- Their market situation: where is a person located in the economy of a society
- Their life chances: chances of a person to achieve certain materialistic and non materialistic goals which are highly valued in society.
Instead of getting polarised into two extreme opposites of the have and the have nots, Weber argues that the rise of the middle class takes place as a result of dissatisfaction with the economic structure. According to him classes in society can be roughly classified into:
- The propertied upper class
- The property-less white collar workers
- The petty bourgeoisie
- The manual worker class
He says that these classes are distributed based on their market situation in a particular economy. This stratification does not necessarily entail their identification with each other leading to class consciousness and eventually a revolution.
Gender: Equality, Neutrality and Third gender
People tend to use the terms “sex” and “gender” interchangeably. We assign a newborn’s sex as either male or female*, based on their genitals. Once a sex is assigned, we presume the child’s gender. Someone born with a penis will be a boy and someone with a vulva will be a girl. For many people, this is cause for little, if any, concern or further thought.
Dimensions of Gender
While our gender may begin with the assignment of our sex, it doesn’t end there. A person’s gender is the complex interrelationship between three dimensions:
- Body: our body, our experience of our own body, how society genders bodies, and how others interact with us based on our body.
Sociology – II
UNIT – IV
NOTES FOR B.A LLB STUDENTS
Topics:
a. Theories: Positivist Approach, Labelling Theory, Functionalist Theory, Subculture Theory
b. Social Problems and Social Legislation: Women and Children
c. Sexual Violence against Women & Children: Myths and Realities
d. Marginalised Groups: Differently abled.
Marginalised Groups and Deviants
Theories: Positivist Approach, Labelling Theory, Functionalist Theory, Subculture Theory
- Labelling theory: T he labelling Theory of Crime is associated with Interactionism – the Key ideas are that crime is socially constructed, agents of social control label the powerless as deviant and criminal based on stereotypical assumptions and this creates effects such as the self-fulfilling prophecy, the criminal career and deviancy amplification.
Interactionists argue that people do not become criminals because of their social background, but rather argue that crime emerges because of labelling by authorities. They see crime as the
product of micro-level interactions between certain individuals and the police, rather than the result of external social forces such as socialisation or blocked opportunity structures.
Four Key concepts associated with Interactionist theories of deviance
- Crime is Sociology Constructed – An act which harms an individual or society else only becomes criminal if those in power label that act as criminal.
- Not everyone who is deviant gets labelled as such – negative labels are generally (deviant/ criminal) are generally given to the powerless by the powerful.
- Labelling has real consequences – it can lead to deviancy amplification, the self-fulfilling prophecy and deviant careers.
- Labelling theory has a clear ‘value position’ – it should aim to promote policies that prevent labelling minor acts as deviant.
3) Functionalist theory :
Its central idea is that society is a complex unit, made up of interrelated parts. Sociologists who apply this theory study social structure and social function. French sociologist Émile Durkheim based his work on this theory.
Durkheim argued that deviance is a normal and necessary part of any society because it contributes to the social order. He identified four specific functions that deviance fulfills:
- Affirmation of cultural norms and values: Seeing a person punished for a deviant act reinforces what a society sees as acceptable or unacceptable behavior. Sentencing a thief to prison affirms our culturally held value that stealing is wrong. Just as some people believe that the concept of God could not exist without the concept of the devil, deviance helps us affirm and define our own norms.
- Clarification of right and wrong: Responses to deviant behavior help individuals distinguish between right and wrong. When a student cheats on a test and receives a failing grade for the course, the rest of the class learns that cheating is wrong and will not be tolerated.
- Unification of others in society: Responses to deviance can bring people closer together. In the aftermath of the attacks on September 11, 2001, people across the United States, and even the world, were united in their shock and grief. There was a surge in patriotic feeling and a sense of social unity among the citizens of the United States.
- Gender inequality at work
- Dowry system
- Sati practice
- Alcoholism
- Superstition
- Sanitation and cleanliness
- Religious conflicts
- Beggary
- Juvenile delinquency
Laws related to women in India :
- The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961
- The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986
- The commission of Sati Prevention Act, 1987
- The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005
- The Sexual Harassment Women at Workplace (Prevention. Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013
Laws relating to children in India:
- The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act 2012
- The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
- Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000
- Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986
- Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976
- Prohibition of child Marriage Act, 2006 Marginalised Groups: Differently abled
In general, the term ‘marginalization’ describes the overt actions or tendencies of human societies, where people who they perceive to undesirable or without useful function, are excluded, i.e., marginalized. These people, who are marginalized, from a GROUP or COMMUNITY for their protection and integration and are known as ‘marginalized groups’. This limits their opportunities and means for survival.
Usually a minority group has the following characteristics
- It suffers from discrimination and subordination.
- They have physical and/or cultural traits that set them apart, and which are disapproved of, by a dominant group.
- They share a sense of collective identity and common burdens.
- They have shared social rules about who belongs, and who does not.
- They have a tendency to marry within the group.
Thus, marginalization is a complex as well as shifting phenomenon linked to social status.
People with disabilities :
People with disabilities have had to battle against centuries of biased assumptions, harmful stereotypes, and irrational fears. The stigmatization of disability resulted in the social and economic marginalization of generations with disabilities, and, like many other oppressed minorities, this has left people with disabilities in a severe state of impoverishment for centuries. The proportion of disabled population in India is about 21.9 million. The percentage of disabled population to the total population is about 2.13 per cent. There are interstate and interregional differences in the disabled population. The disabled face various types of barriers while seeking access to health and health services. Among those who are disabled women, children and aged are more vulnerable and need attention.
References:
- A. Giddens, Sociology, New Delhi: Wiley India Pvt Ltd, (Chapter 21), 2013
- R. Crompton and M. Mann (eds.), Gender and Stratification, Cambridge: Polity Press, (Chapter 3, pp 23-39),
- Haralambos, Themes and Perspectives, Oxford, (406-451)
- A.R.Radcliffe-Brown, and Daryll Forde, “ Introduction” in Radcliffe-Brown and Daryll Forde (eds.), African Systems of Kinship and Marriage, London: Oxford University Press, (pp 1-39), 1950 27
- A. M. Shah, “Changes in the Indian Family: An Examination of Some Assumptions”, in A.M. Shah, The Family in India: Critical Essays, pp. 52-63(Orient Longman,1998.
- E. Durkhiem, Elementary Forms of Religious Life. A New Translation by Carol Cosman, OUP: Oxford, (pp 25-46; 87-100 and 153-182), 2001
