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Personality: Theories and Assessment
Block-1 Personality: Theories and Assessment [4]
Unit-1 Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development
Unit-2 State/Trait Approaches to Personality
Unit-3 Assessment of Personality
Unit-4 Key Issues in Personality
Block-2 Theories of Personality-I [4]
Unit-1 Psychodynamic Theory (Including Horney and Sullivan)
Unit-2 Social Cognitive Theory of Personality (Bandura)
Unit-3 Learning Theory of Personality (Pavlov and Skinner)
Unit-4 Humanistic and Self Theory (Malsow and Rogers)
Block-3 Theories of Personality-II [4]
Unit-1 Gordon Allport : A Dispositional Theory of Personality
Unit-2 Raymond Cattell: A Trait Theory of Personality
Unit-3 Hans Eysenck: A Trait-Type Theory of Personality
Unit-4 The Big Five Factors: The Basic Dimensions of Personality
Block-4 Assessment of Personality [4]
Unit-1 Introduction to Assessment and Testing
Unit-2 Approaches to Personality Assessment (Sefl-Report, Problems of Response
in Projective and Behavioural Assessment)
Unit-3 Behavioural Assessment
Unit-4 Other Measures of Personality
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development
UNIT 1 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF
PERSONALITY AND PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Definition and Concept of Personality
1.3 Personality Development 1.3.1 Biological Factors 1.3.2 Psychological Factors 1.3.2.1 Intellectual Determinants 1.3.2.2 Emotional Determinants 1.3.2.3 Excessive Love and Affection 1.3.2.4 Self-disclosure 1.3.2.5 Aspiration and Achievements 1.3.2.6 Achievements 1.3.2.7 Goal Setting 1.3.3 Environmental Factors 1.3.3.1 Social Acceptance 1.3.3.2 Social Deprivation 1.3.3.3 Educational Factors 1.3.3.4 Family Determinants 1.3.3.5 Emotional Climate of Home and Ordinal Position 1.3.3.6 Size of the Family
1.4 Let Us Sum Up
1.5 Unit End Questions
1.6 Suggested Readings
1.7 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1.0 INTRODUCTION
For laypersons, the term personality is often understood in terms of being good looking, attractive etc. They go by the impression created by the person concerned. The ability to talk and interact with others pleasantly in addition to being good looking, would make others say that the person concerned has a good personality. Persons who do not have good looks or not well dressed or do not interact adequately are considered to have poor personality. But scientifically this is not a true concept of personality. In fact, psychologists consider any attempt to define personality in terms of social attractiveness inadequate because of two reasons, first it limits the number and types of behaviour considered important and worthy for incorporation into the study of personality. Second, such notion carries the absurd implication that some people who have unique abilities and temperament traits are devoid of having a personality. In this unit we will be dealing with the definition of personality as put forward by psychologists. Definition of personality will be presented as given by Gordon Allport and there will be a discussion of the concept of personality development. Under Personality development, various factors contributing to the same will be discussed including the biological, psychological and environmental factors.
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development
i) Thoughts, feelings and actions are considered as behavioural components of identity that make distinction between individuals
ii) Behaviours are viewed as being primarily caused by internal rather than environmental factors.
iii) The behaviours of the person seem to have organisation and structure.
Behaviours of an individual seem to fit together in a meaningful way. It is to be kept in mind that the nature of behaviours is dynamic and there may occur changes in the organisation and structure of behaviours over a period of time. It is in this sense that Allport (1937, 1961), defined personality as the dynamic organisation within the person of the psychophysical systems that determine the unique adjustments to one’s environment. This suggests that there is an inner personality that guides and directs individual’s behaviour. Allport the man who has done more than anyone to shed light on the myriad meaning of the term personality analysed 50 definitions of personality, and finally put forward his own definition of personality mentioned above.
For better distinct understanding of the term personality, it is essential that it should not be confused with character and temperament. While the term character refers to the value judgements, which are made about a person’s moral values or ethical behaviour, the term temperament refers to the inborn enduring characteristics such as adaptability, irritability etc. However, both character and temperament are vital parts of personality.
Self Assessment Questions 1
Who has said that personality is the dynamic organisation of traits? a) Eysenck b) Allport c) Murray d) None of them.
Which of the followings are regarded as component of behavioural identity of personality? a) Thoughts b) Feelings c) Actions d) All.
Human behaviours are largely determined by: a) Internal factors b) Environmental factors c) Both d) Neither.
Which one is the inborn enduring characteristics of the personality? a) Traits b) Character c) Temperament d) None of these.
Personality has been understood as largely the combination of: a) Trait and temperament b) Consistency and individuality c) Value and attitude d) Character and temperament.
Personality: Theories and Assessment 1.3 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
The development of personality has been a topic of interest for the personality psychologists right from the time the term came into existence. Psychologists have tried to identity those factors which directly or indirectly influence the growth and development of personality. Although there are a large number of factors, which influence the development of personality, such factors have been broadly grouped into three general categories and these are given below.
- Biological factors,
- Pscyhological factors,
- Environmental factors.
Since these factors tend to determine the way personality develops they are also called as determinants of personality. These three sets of factors are discussed here in detail.
1.3.1 Biological Factors
Biological determinants also called as physical determinants emphasise that physique and body functioning are directly responsible for personality development. Some of these factors are: (i) Body build (ii) Physical attractiveness (iii) Homeostasis (iv) Physical defects (v) Health conditions.
i) Body build: Body build influences personality directly by determining what an individual can and cannot do, as well as what the individual’s reaction will be to all those whose body builds are superior or inferior. Some of the known body builds are (i) ectomorph (ii) endomorph, and (iii) mesomorph. Ectomorphs are persons who are tall and thin in their body builds. They have been generally found to be superior to Endomorphs who have round and soft body builds. The superiority is especially in speed and endurance. Likewise, mesomorphs who are strong and muscular in their body builds have been found to be superior to both ectomorphs and endomorphs in activities like speed, endurance and agility. It has also been reported that body build of an individual affects the person’s self-concept, which is an important constituents of personality. This self concept can be favourable or unfavourable. For instance if the body build allows the person to do things that are socially desirable, prestigious and better than others it would contribute to positive self concept about oneself. On the other hand if it allows the person to do things which are not favourable or positive or ends up in failure, it would lead to poor or negative self concept. ii) Physical attractiveness: Physical attractiveness is another physical component that affects the development of personality. An attractive person of any age is more appealing than a person who is unattractive. Brislin & Lewis (1968) have commented that it is very much rewarding to be with someone who is physically attractive. Generally, it has been found that the people tend to be more tolerant in their attitudes and judgements of an attractive person. That is the reason why a pretty child is less likely to be punished or criticised for troublesome behaviour than a simple looking
Personality: Theories and Assessment
Health conditions Health conditions also affect the development of personality. At all ages and in both sexes good health is considered as a personality asset and poor health is a liability. There are ample evidences to support it. Many personality changes result from poor health conditions and tend to continue even after the illness has been cured or its severity has been lessened. This is especially true during childhood when the personality is in the formative stages. Many personality changes and disturbances in adolescents and adults have their root in illnesses during the early years of childhood (Martin & Vincent, 1960).
It has also been found that persons having illness like diabetes, etc., experience tension and anxiety which causes frustration in dealing with the demands of social environments. As a result of frustration, they become aggressive and often turn their aggression towards others. Physical disturbances like the female irregular menstrual cycle often lead to emotional instability accompanied by a tendency to be irritable and depressed. This increases their level of emotionality and the heightened emotionality is reflected in poor social adjustment and decrease in social activities, ultimately affecting women’s self-concept and the attitudes towards other people.
Self Assessment Questions 2
- Tall and thin body builds are the characteristics of: a) Mesomorph b) Ectomorph c) Endomorph d) None of these.
- Homeostatis refers to: a) Disturbances in the internal balance of the body b) Maintenance of a stable internal environment c) Maintenance of even rate of oxygen utilisation d) Maintenance of normal level of blood sugar and blood pressure.
- Homeostasis affects the self-concept: a) Only in a positive way b) Only in a negative way c) Both positively and negatively d) Has no effect.
- Which is Not the physical determinants of personality? a) Homeostasis b) Physical attractiveness c) Body builds d) Gender
- High blood pressure is generally associated with causation of: a) Neuroticism b) Depression c) General nervousness d) None of these.
1.3.2 Psychological Factors
Several psychological factors tend to determine the development of personality. Among those factors the following can be specially discussed because of their importance. These include:
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development
i) Intellectual determinants
ii) Emotional determinants
iii) Self disclosure
iv) Aspiration and achievements
The above are being discussed in the following paragraphs.
1.3.2.1 Intellectual Determinants
These are one of the important factors which influence the development of personality. Researchers are of view that intellectual capacities influence personality through various kinds of adjustments in life and indirectly through the judgments other persons make of the individual on the basis of the person’s intellectual achievements.
This judgment in turn affects the evaluation and consequently the development of personality. Intellectually bright men and women make better personal and social adjustments than those of average or below average intelligence.
Several studies bear testimony to the fact that bright men and women are generally introspective, thoughtful, creative, adventuresome and have strong concern with problems, meanings and values. They are found to show a wider interest especially in the theoretical and aesthetic areas. Since they have greater and stronger mental ability, they have better control over themselves.
However, having very superior intelligence affects personality development unfavourably because it creates special problems which are not encountered by those persons who are merely bright. These various problems result in the development of a personality pattern, which is characterised by the traits like negativism, intolerance, habits of chicanery, emotional conflicts, solitary pursuit, self-sufficiency, dominance, etc. Evidences also have provided support to the fact that intellectual capacities also influence development of values, morality and human.
1.3.2.2 Emotional Determinants
These are other important factors that shape the development of personality. Emotions are considered important personality determinants because they affect personal and social adjustment. Research has shown that several aspects of emotions like dominant emotions, emotional balance, emotional deprivation, excessive love and affection, emotional expressions, emotional catharsis and emotional stress directly and indirectly affect the development of personality.
Some people experience a predominance of pleasant emotions while others experience a predominance of unpleasant emotions. This predominance affect the development of personality. The cheerful persons are usually happy and even when they are in a depressive mood they can see the brighter side of things. Likewise, since apprehensive persons are full of fear, they even when there is ja happy or enjoyable situation, feel depressed and remain afraid. Emotional balance which is a condition in which pleasant emotions outweigh the unpleasant emotion, is considered essential to good social and personal adjustment.
When the person encounters with obstacles and problems, unpleasant experiences like fear, anger, envy and other negative emotions are aroused. As a consequence,
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development
1.3.2.5 Aspiration and Achievements
These also have an effect on the development of personality. Aspiration means a longing for and striving for something higher than one’s present status. Thus aspirations are the ego-involved goals that persons set for themselves. The more ego-involved the aspirations are, the more will be the impact upon behaviour and therefore, greater will be the impact upon personality. There may be various forms of aspirations such as positive aspiration (to achieve success), negative aspiration (to avoid failure), realistic aspiration (within the range of the person’s capacity), unrealistic aspirations (beyond the capacity of the person), remote aspirations (to achieve a goal in the remote future) or immediate aspirations (to achieve a goal in the near future).
The motivating power of aspiration varies. In general, remote and realistic aspirations do provide stronger motivating forces than immediate and unrealistic aspirations. Negative aspirations are considered weaker in providing motivating strength than positive aspirations.
Level of aspiration, that is, the discrepancy between the goal an individual has achieved and the goal the person hopes to reach, affects the personality in terms of the size of the discrepancy. When the size of discrepancy is large, the person’s self-concept is severely damaged especially if the person fails to achieve the goal. Not only the individual will judge self as failure but others will also judge the person as a failure in particular if others know about the person’s goal and that goal had not been achieved.
Research studies have also shown that high aspirations are not necessarily a source of damage to the self-concept. They may be a source of motivation and pleasure. They may be a kind of wishful thinking that will not cause any damage to personality so long as it remains a form of fun and play.
1.3.2.6 Achievements
These are another related factor that determine the development of personality. Achievement can be evaluated objectively by comparing one’s performance with those of one’s peers and subjectively, by comparing the person’s achievement with the level of aspiration. Success and failure are the two different attitudes of the person towards achievement. If the person is pleased with own achievement, the achievement will be considered a success and this has a favourable impact upon the self-concept. However if the person’s attitude towards achievement is negative, then the achievement will not be considered a success but a failure. Such persons will feel dissatisfied and miserable and in turn their self concept will be adversely affected. Persons who feel that they have been successful remain satisfied with themselves and appear to be happy.
Besides building a favourable self-concept, achievement also raises the person’s self-esteem and increases the level of self-confidence so that the individual can solve the many new problem of the future successfully. In addition to the personal satisfaction that a person derives from achieving the goal successfully, the achievement ensures that the person is appropriate in all the actions that are taken up, which in turn produce a stabilising impact upon the behaviour. Therefore, a successful person tends to be more relaxed than a person who has experiences of failure.
Personality: Theories and Assessment
1.3.2.7 Goal Setting
Experimental evidences have shown that one of the most important effect that success has upon the person is that the individual becomes more realistic about goal setting. Such persons would asset their goal to a point where they have reasonable chances of reaching. This behaviour is an obvious characteristic of intelligenct, well-adjusted people than of those who are poorly adjusted.
Success enhances self-concept by increasing the person’s prestige in the eyes of others. This enhances social acceptance and strengthens the individual’s self- concept. But too much success during early years of life may, in fact, weakens the person’s motivation to do one’s best. It may cause the person to loose some of the new motivations which can be generated by early achievement. Extraordinary achievement even may prove to be more harmful than helpful to social relationship and not only that, it may arouse jealousy and resentment among those persons who are socially related to the person but somehow less successful.
Failure is another constituent of achievement. It is always ego-deflating. Failure undermines the self-confidence and self-esteem. Gradually, it destroys the person’s belief that she or he can do something to achieve and this, in effect, weakens the motive to achieve even those things which are within his or her capability. Severe and repeated failure causes stress, anxiety and tension. Sometimes such repeated failures cause so intense stress and anxiety that it produces psychosomatic illness or leads to a defeatist attitude, which strengthens the person’s belief in his or her inadequacy and intensifies the poor personal and social adjustment. Research have revealed that one of the most damaging aspects of failure is somehow not achieving the desired goal and social recognition, especially when the person hoped to do so. This sense of dissatisfaction is intensified by the realisation that others with whom the person has competed, have achieved the success much earlier than him or her. Under such conditions, the impact upon the self concept is highly unfavourable.
By contrast, one of the greatest source of satisfaction is to achieve success, recognition and prestige much earlier than anticipated and earlier than one’s competitors. This condition has favourable impact upon the self-concept. Sometimes it may be so much favourable that it may lead to the delusion of grandeur and superiority complex and this condition, in the long term, may counteract favourable social judgement and prove damaging to the self-concept.
Self Assessment Questions 3
- Markedly superior intelligence leads to a personality pattern which is characterised by : a) negativism b) Intolerance c) emotional conflicts d) All the above.
- Which one of the followings is known as mental health insurance? a) Emotional balance b) Tolerance c) Envy tolerance d) None of these.
- Emotional starvation occurs due to : a) Emotional deprivation b) Deprivation of love c) Emotional imbalance d) None of these.
Personality: Theories and Assessment
One extreme opposite of social acceptance is social isolation. If a person develops the feelings of rejection due to social isolation when in fact they want to be accepted, would develop the feeling of resentment against those who have rejected them. Such people are often depressed, sad and unhappy. They may develop sour-grapes attitude towards social activities. Such social rejection may lead the persons to become juvenile delinquents or criminals in the long run. Researchers have further shown that if early social experiences of the persons are favourable, they are likely to become social and if their experiences are unfavourable, they are likely to develop an unsocial or antisocial personality.
1.3.3.2 Social Deprivation
This is another environmental factor, which is said to influence the development of personality in massive and significant way. Social deprivation means being deprived of opportunities for various types of social contacts including love and affection. Social deprivation causes social isolation which has an adverse effect on personality. Social deprivation has proved most damaging for two age groups— the very young and the elderly. The young children who are deprived of contacts with parents / guardians fail to develop healthy and normal personality. Their behaviour is socially disapproved and they are also unfavourably judged by others.
Social deprivation in elderly people make them self-bound and selfish, which gradually lead to unfavourable social and self judgements. It has also been observed that social deprivation is far more damaging to people who want and also need social contacts for happiness than those who are self-sufficient or who voluntarily withdraw. For example, when elderly persons voluntarily decide on their own to withdraw from social activities, they are far happier and relatively well adjusted in comparison to those whose withdrawal is involuntary. If social deprivation is extensive and prolonged, it gradually leads to unhealthy social attitudes and mental illness.
1.3.3.3 Educational Factors
Another important factor, which influences the development of personality is the educational factors. Schools, colleges and teachers have significant impact upon the individual’s development of personality. The impact of educational institution upon personality development is largely determined by the students’ attitude towards school and colleges, towards peers, towards teachers and also toward the value of education. When these attitudes are favourable, the students usually enjoy their academic activities and have a warm and friendly relationship with teachers and their peers. This has a very favourable impact upon the development of personality by producing stronger sense of self-confidence and self-esteem.
The reverse is true when there is unfavourable attitudes amongst students towards education and educational institutions, teachers and peers etc.. Research studies have further revealed that if the students are physically and psychologically ready to enter the school or colleges, their attitude tend to be far more favourable. Attitude towards educational institution is greatly influenced by emotional climate of the institution, which affect the level of motivation, students’ classroom behaviour and their general emotional reactions. Through these various behavioural patterns, the emotional climate of the educational institution affects the students’ self-evaluation and the evaluation others make of them.
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development
Another important factor of educational determinants that affect personality is student-teacher relationship, which is largely dependent upon the teacher’s treatment of the students, upon students’ attitude toward particular teachers and on their teaching as well as the disciplinary techniques used by the teachers including the cultural stereotypes of teachers as a group. These attitudes, in turn, affect the quality of the student’s academic work which becomes the basis of evaluation of self and social evaluation. Teacher student relationship affect the students’ personality through its impact upon students’ motivation for academic achievement. When the students see that their relationship with the teacher is warm and friendly, their achievements are far better than when they perceive the relationship as hostile, punitive and rejecting. This boosts their self-concept by enhancing self confidence and self esteem.
1.3.3.4 Family Determinants
This is another important class of factors that influence development of personality. The influence of family on personality development is maximal at all ages. The family affects the development of personality both directly or indirectly. Direct influence of family upon personality comes chiefly through different child-training methods which are used to mould the personality pattern, and the communication of interest, attitude and values between members of the family. Strict, demanding, punitive and inhibiting parents / guardians tend to encourage their children for depending upon external controls to guide their behaviour. As a result, when the children are outside the direct control of their parents/guardian, they tend to show impulsiveness in their behaviour.
Indirectly, through identification with parents, children develop a personality pattern similar to that of their parents. Experimental studies reveal that through imitation also, a certain personality pattern develops. For example, living with parents who are anxious, nervous and lacking the sense of humor produces in the children a sense of nervousness and frequent outburst of temper. Likewise, living with warm, affectionate, loving and interested parents generally produces a social and gregarious persons. Such persons also develop an interest of welfare and affection for persons outside the home as well.
1.3.3.5 Emotional Climate of Home and Ordinal Position
A very important factor in the development of personality is the emotional climate at home as well as the ordinal position of the individual concerned within his family. Ordinal position refers to the eldest or youngest or middle or 2nd^ or 3 rd child in the family. If the home climate is favourable, the person will react to personal problems and frustrations in a calm way and to people in a tolerant and cooperative way. On the other hand if emotional climate of home is full of friction and conflicts, the person is more likely to develop a sense of hostility and may often tend to react to people in an aggressive way.
Ordinal position also affects the development of personality. Studies have revealed that the firstborns tend to be more conforming and dependent than later borns. They are more affiliative, more susceptible to group pressures and more introverted. Firstborns who achieve greater success than the later born siblings tend to be selfish and self centred. They show their feeling of superiority about their achievements by making criticism of others. Despite the feelings of superiority, they continue to suffer from a feeling of insecurity which had
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development
Self Assessment Questions 4
- Social deprivation generally leads to : a) Social rejection b) Social discrimination c) Negative self-concept d) None of these.
- Mohan, leader of a group, is more colourful, more flexible, more active in his approach. It all happens because he has : a) Social acceptance b) Social support c) Social status d) All the above.
- Within a group when the person status changes such as from follower to leader or the vice versa, it is termed as : a) Social mobility b) Changes in group status c) Social stereotype d) None of these.
- Which has the most lasting impact upon the development of personality of a student? a) Academic success b) Teacher’s attitude and behaviour c) Teacher-studente relationship d) All of the above.
- Which size of the family is considered ideal for development of pesonality? a) Small families b) Medium-size families c) Large families d) None.
1.4 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we learnt about personality. We pointed out as to how the term personality is often understood in terms of social attractiveness. We pointed out the scientific approach to personality development which explain the concept of personality in terms of individuality and consistency. Another important notion in defining the concept of personality is consistency. Combining these notions of individuality and consistency, personality can be defined as the distinctive and unique ways in which each individual thinks, feels and acts, which characterise a person’s response throughout life. In other words, it can be said that personality refers to all those relatively permanent traits, dispositions or characteristics within the person that give some measure of consistency to the person’s behaviour. These traits may be unique, common to some groups or shared by the entire species but their pattern will be different from individual to individual.
Behaviours of an individual seem to fit together in a meaningful way. It is to be kept in mind that the nature of behaviours is dynamic and there may occur changes in the organisation and structure of behaviours over a period of time. It is in this sense that Allport (1937, 1961), defined personality as the dynamic organisation within the person of the psychophysical systems that determine the unique adjustments to one’s environment.
Then we took up personality development and pointed out as to how psychologists have tried to identity factors which directly or indirectly influence the growth and development of personality. Although there are a large number of factors,
Personality: Theories and Assessment
which influence the development of personality, such factors have been broadly grouped into three general categories and these are given below.
i) Biological factors ii) Pscyhological factors and iii) Environmental factors.
Since these factors tend to determine the way personality develops they are also called as determinants of personality. These were discussed in detail. Biological factors consisted of body build, physical attractiveness, homeostasis, physical defects and health conditions. The psychological factors consisted of intellectual factors, emotional factors including excessive love and affection, self disclosure, aspiration and achievement and goal setting behaviour. and environmental factors consisted of social acceptance, social deprivation, educational factors, family emotional climate, ordinal position of the individual in the family and size of the family. Finally it was concluded that personality development takes place through learning processes including imitation.
1.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS
- Define personality. Citing example, make distinction between temperament and character.
- Discuss the physical or biological determinants of personality development.
- Outline the role of psychological determinants of personality development.
- Discuss the role of environmental determinants in shaping personality development.
- Enumerate the basic formula : Personality Development = Physical determinants × Psychological determinants × Environmental determinants
1.6 SUGGESTED READINGS
Coon, D. (2007). Introduction to Psychology : Thompson. Wood, S.E. & Wood, E.G. (1996). The World of Psychology : Allyn & Bacon Ryckman, R.M (1993). Theories of Personality : Brooks / Cole Publishing Company.
1.7 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
- (b) 2 (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b)
- (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a)
- (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (c)
- (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d)
Personality: Theories and Assessment 2.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
- Define personality;
- Describe Allport’s trait theory approach;
- Elucidate the factors contributtuing to Allport’s theory of personality;
- Describe Cattell’s trait theory to understanding personality;
- Explain the factors contributing to Cattell’s personality theory;
- Elucidate Eysenck’s theory of trait and type apprioach;
- Explain the factors contributing to Extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism;
- Elucidate the Trait approach of Guilford to personality;
- Analyse the factors contributing to Guilford’s idea of personality development;
- Elucidate the Five Factor Model of personality; and
- Describe and analyse OCEAN.
2.2 TYPE APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY
The earliest effort to explain human behaviour involved the use of personality typologies, which classified behaviour into discrete, all-or-nothing categories. For example, Hippocrates a Greek Physician (and later on Galen, too) classified individuals into four exclusive types according to four basic internal fluids or humors, each associated with a particular temperament. These four basic fluids were : blood, phelgm, black bile and yellow bile. The dominance of any one fluid led to a particular personality temperament. For example, dominance of blood produced Sanguine temperament (cheerful and active), dominance of phelgm produced Phlegmatic temperament (apathetic and sluggish), the dominance of black bile produced Melancholic temperament (sad and brooding) and dominance of yellow bile produced Choleric temperament (irritable and exitable). This is known as four-humor theory and remained popular for centuries although today it is regarded as a baseless theory because it has been established now that personality and moods are not driven by bodily fluids. Later on the basis of observation of patients, Hippocrates pointed out that people with short and thick bodies were prone to stroke and those with tall, thin bodies to tuberculosis.
Another interesting typologies were that of William Sheldon, a U.S.A. Physician. He tried to relate physique to temperament. On the basis of somatotype (body build), he assigned each individual to one of the three categories , viz., (i) ectomorphic (thin, long and fragile), (ii) endomorphic (fat, soft and round) and (iii) mesomorphic (muscular, strong and rectangular). According to Sheldon, ectomorphs are artistic, brainy and introverted, endomorphs are relaxed, fond of eating, sleeping and sociable whereas mesomorphs are affective, dominant, filled with energy and courage.
State/Trait Approaches to Personality
Sheldon’s theory has not been substantiated and has proved of little value in predicting individual behaviour (Tylor, 1965). In addition, people belonged to many different shape and size and not all can be fitted to the Sheldon’s three types.
MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) typology is another typology which is modern one and based upon Carl Jung’s theory of personality types. Using the MBTI, individual’s selfreported preferences are used to assess four dimensions of personality: E or I (Extraversion- Introversion), S or N (Sensing or Intution), T or F (Thinking-Feeling) and J or P (Judgement-Perception). The MBTI identifies 16 types of personality based on Jung’s distinctions between E-I, S-N and T-F, as well as upon Isobel Myer’s distinction between J-P. The J-P distinction indicates as to whether an individual’s orientation toward the external world comes from rational (judging) or the irrational (perceiving) function pair. If a person takes MBTI, he would be assigned to only one pole of each dimension and the combination of dimensions would determine which of the sixteen types best describes him. For example, a person who receives ESFP (Extraverted-Sensing- Feeling-Perception) classification would be characterised as outgoing, easygoing, accepting, friendly and would be considered best in situations that need sound common sense and practical ability with people as well as with things.
The Myers-Briggs is a very good type system because its categories are distinct or discontinuous and people of any one type are supported to be very much like each other that help them to be distinguished from other types. Critics of MBTI state that while the four dimensions are informative, persons should be described according to their actual scores on each dimension rather then being mixed into types.
Type approach to personality apparently fails in its mission to provide a satisfactory classification system because there are many people who cannot be fitted into prescribed type. Today, psychologists prefer to describe people not in terms of type rather in terms of traits. Types are not descriptive of the persons. In fact, they rob the uniqueness of persons by placing the persons into a perconceived category. Thus type exists in the eye of beholder whereas traits exist within the people.
2.3 TRAIT APPROACHES/THEORIES
These approaches explain personality in terms of traits, which are defined as relatively stable and consistent personal characteristics. Trait approach attempts to explain personality and differences between people in terms of their personal characteristics, to devise ways of measuring individual differences in personality traits and to use these measures for understanding and predicting a person’s behaviour. Type approach assume that there are separate, and discontinuous categories into which persons fit whereas trait approach assumes that there are continuous dimensions such as warmth, extraversion, etc. that vary in quality as well as degree.
Under the trait approach, the viewpoints of Allport, Cattell, Eysenck Guilford, and the Five Factor Model would be discussed in detail.
