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The impact of documentaries on gender differences in perception of plant-based diets, focusing on the role of meat consumption in self-identity and societal norms. The study investigates why women are more likely to adopt plant-based diets for ethical, health, and environmental reasons, while men's perceptions and motivations differ. The document also discusses the influence of social determinants, traditional beliefs, and hegemonic masculinity on food choices.
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JÖNKÖPING UNIVERSITY School of Education and Communication Box 1026, SE-551 11 Jönköping, Sweden +46 (0)36 101000 Master thesis, 15 credits Course: Media and Communication Science with Specialization in International Communication Term: Spring 201 9
Writer(s): Franziska Saell Title: Female and male’s perception on a Plant-based (Vegan) diet Subtitle: Language: How perception on a Plant-based diet (Vegan) changes after having watched the documentary film What the Health English Pages: 37 Veganism (or following a PBD) is scientifically proven to be one of the possible answers to the environmental, ethical and health issues our society is currently facing. The documentary film What the Health advocates this claim and presents the tremendous impacts, meat and dairy production and consumption, have on our environment, our personal health and for the people living on our planet. The documentary’s attempt of persuading people to adopt a PBD remained unanswered and was the chosen case-study for this research on audience reception and media effects. The purpose of this research is to provide new empirical data on how the documentary film What the Health changes females’ and males’ perception of a PBD. Using a qualitative method of in-depth interviews, this study aimed to understand how the documentary film What the Health changes females’ and males’ perception of a PBD in times of the 21st^ century Vegan social movement. Using theoretical insights from the following theories: Framing theory, schema theory, social representation theory, social cognition theory and the concept of hegemonic masculinity, this study aimed to assess whether the documentary film What the Health contributed to perception changes among its audience. And whether gender differences were prominent. The findings of this study indicated perception changes of a PBD among its audience. Preconceptions of Veganism as a social trend or for ethical justifications were changed to understanding people’s individual motivations for attaining such a diet. Overall, no significant gender differences were detected. The social determinant of perceived restrictions within a social context were the most dominant factors of not transitioning to a PBD. Meat is undoubtedly an inherent and substantial part of people’s lives and restricting oneself from it is not perceived to be the answer to environmental, personal health and ethical issues. However, the audience was observed to admire Vegans for their discipline and strength. This study indicated that the documentary film What the Health might have an effect on its audience in the long term, which is proposed as future research respectively. Keywords : PBD, Vegan, Documentary, What the Health , Audience Perception, Gendered Nutrition
Definitions Vegan/Plant-based diet^1 The Vegan diet is similar to the Vegetarian diet in that it does not include any meat. However, it also does not include any animal products at all: complete abandonment of dairy products such as milk, cheese, yogurt, eggs, and honey. In addition to that, complete abandonment of animal products, no animal derivatives, and no animal testing. This is also a lifestyle, by which many do not purchase any items that are made of animal products^2. Omnivore diet The omnivore diet consists of animal products and meat, as well as fruits and vegetables. It essentially means that one can eat everything and nothing is limited to them. It is the most common diet amongst us human beings and also the most diverse. Vegetarian diet Abstention from the consumption of meat. (^1) In this paper, the word ‘Vegan’ diet is used interchangeably with ‘Plant-based diet’. The researcher is fully aware that the terms might have different meanings and connotations to some people. Nonetheless, for the purpose of this paper, the term will be used interchangeably and is defined by the definition above and elaborately explained below.
Rosenfeld & Burrow, 2017; Turner et al., 2013). Nevertheless, in regard to the current social movement around Veganism, males have increasingly reported to follow a PBD (Murray-Ragg, 2017), thus offering a fruitful research focus. The documentary What the Health (2017) (see Appendix II, p. 4 8 ) was produced by the American Filmmakers Kip Andersen and Keegan Kuhn, resulting in media attention worldwide. The documentary’s narrative features Andersen, as the protagonist, on his journey to find out the truth about meat and dairy production/consumption. Thereto he interviews scientists, physicians, world-class athletes and most importantly regular people. Andersen uncovers his truth of how the pharmaceutical industry and health organizations are colluding with the animal agriculture industry, how chronic diseases were reversed by transitioning to a PBD, presenting regular people and their personal journeys. The documentary describes the unethical aspects of meat and dairy production and the immorality behind it, for animal welfare and for the communities living in the areas of meat and dairy production. The narrative combines scientific information through storytelling and characterization and thus promotes the content’s understanding, increases engagement and captures attention (Jamieson et al., 2017). Is this pro-Vegan documentary perceived as a scientific breakthrough or a conspiracy myth? Will males’ perceptions differ to females’ perception considering that meat is associated with masculinity (Prättäla et al., 2007; Turner et al., 2013)? Interesting in this regard is Hansen’s (2010) claim that “it is instructive to consider whether we are, broadly speaking, within a generally ‘receptive’ period or whether we are going through a period where society is, if not directly hostile to, then perhaps bored with ‘the environment’ […]” (p. 23). This study departs from the assumption that we are currently in a very ‘receptive’ period in regard to environmental issues with multiple major news outlets, like The Economist and Forbes , having declared Veganism to go mainstream in 2019 (Cappiello, 2018). Background Originated from Vegetarianism, which is a well-known concept globally, Veganism differs in the way that no animal-derived products are being consumed. Or rather being avoided as much as possible in all areas of life (Boström et al., 2019 ). This calls for subcategories of Veganism, with PBDs that are rather focused on a more sustainable way of eating, taking the lead. While Vegetarians might still eat fish and eggs as a part of their diets, Vegans do not consume products originating from animals. Or as states above, strive not to. Diets that largely compose of vegetables and grains have existed since ancient times. But Veganism in the 21st^ century is not only about
eating vegetables and grains but rather a lifestyle that challenges the public’s belief system of animal-derived products as “normal to consume” within societal discourse. And prevails ethical, health, environmental, as well as political reasons around this perception of consumption (Boström et al., 2019). This PB-lifestyle has been created and sustained by popular media (Christopher et al., 2018) and identifies “Veganism as a distinctive second-order subculture situated within the broader Vegetarian subculture” (p. 55). This lifestyle profoundly builds on the tenet of ethical, health, as well as environmental reasoning. It furthermore increasingly goes beyond these factors, leading to a focus of contemporary political consumerism, by which consumers voice political concerns through refraining themselves from buying animal products. “[Political consumerism] represents actions by people who make choices among producers and products with the goal of changing objectionable institutional or market practices. Their choices are based on attitudes and values regarding issues of justice, fairness, or noneconomic issues that concern personal and family well-being and ethical or political assessment of favorable and unfavorable business and government practice.” (Boström et al., 2019 drawing on Micheletti, 2003, p.2) Veganism being a lifestyle that allows ‘blurry boundaries’ describes individual’s embracement of practices that can be linked to self-identity (Boström et al., 2019 drawing on Giddens, 1991). And while the several various practices on how to be Vegan are defined by individual preferences, Veganism goes beyond anticonsumerism. It is conceptualized as political consumerism in the way that individuals “use their private life to take responsibility for the allocation of common values and resources” (Boström et al., 2019, drawing on Stolle & Micheletti, 2013, p. 169). By questioning existing social structures through adapting Vegan habits and falling out of the ordinary of societal eating patterns, people make profound lifestyle changes. Another focus conveys “a philosophical worldview emphasizing a more egalitarian relationship between human and nonhuman animals” (drawing on Francione, 2010, p.161). These multiple and varied subgroups are practiced ‘fluidly’ and ‘flexibly’ in modern societies with various groups having numerous motivations and solutions to the bigger problem of animal- derived foods’ production/consumption (Boström et al., 2019). The diversification and adherence of Veganism is going from “Meat Free Mondays” (p. 161) and “Eat Vegan Before 6 p.m.” (p. 161) to “reducing meat consumption by 20 percent” (p. 161 ) to only eating “Raw Vegetables” (p. 161) and highlights consumers as individuals who are free to make their own choices; in Western societies at least. As well as its rising public acceptance and encouragement. However, we still find ourselves living in a world that is dominated by Omnivores due to the obvious cultural pattern within most Western societies (Graça,
Aim of this study This study aims to provide new qualitative empirical data on the individual’s perception of a PBD. And how the individual’s perception of a PBD potentially changes after having watched the documentary What the Health. It aims to analyze perception changes by investigating gender differences and attitude changes of a PBD after having viewed the documentary What the Health. Thus, this study wishes to gain knowledge of gender differences within the study of media effects on the audience, with the documentary film What the Health as a case-study. As a corollary of this, the purpose of this scientific study is to examine the role of the documentary film What the Health in regard to its effects onto the audience. Research questions This qualitative empirical study aims to answer the following research questions:
Review of literature
Documentary films are a subcategory of films that create journalistic work rather than a fictional story. Driven by fact-based information, documentary films follow a story line that, arguably just like news stories, work on the premise of true facts (Kasson, 2010). Notably, it is a storyline with a narrative that creates tensions, highlights aspects and wishes to convey a message. Advocates of emphasizing documentary productions as truthfully informing the public on a certain topic thus equate them with journalism. They argue that journalistic news, just like any other media, can be argued to have a certain agenda, frame debated issues, and have been criticized to be dominated by corporate profit (Kasson, 2010). However, unlike journalism, documentary films do not follow a strict code of ethics and are therefore criticized as a medium of entertainment rather than forming public opinion (Scott, 2010). Several scholarly quantitative and qualitative studies have aimed to determine the effects of documentary films in regard to changes of the audience’s attitudes and behaviors toward specific topics in the scope of their research. Using methodologies of pre-testing prior to viewing, post-testing immediately after having viewed the documentary and an online follow-up, these studies investigated audience’s immediate as well as short and long term changes. In this line of research, Cottone & Byrd- Bredbenner (2007) showed the documentary film Super Size Me to their audience of young college students, building on the Prochaska’s Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change. Which states that, “emotional arousal” (p. 1197) in form of extracting certain emotions as well as “consciousness-raising” (p. 1197) in form of available information given to the viewer and thereof raising awareness, can have an impact on individual’s health choices. Mass-media had already claimed the documentary to be a “behavior-change catalyst” (p. 1201) and the study’s findings supported these claims with fruitful results; affirming the medium’s impact on individual’s nutrition perception. The fictional movie The Age of Stupid was used in another study of Howell (2011) and surveyed people that were initially already going to the movie, aiming to find an increase in viewers’ concerns about climate change, their motivation to mitigate climate change and whether viewers’ fear for future catastrophes would rise. This study concluded that people that already possessed a certain interest in climate change do not show a significant change in attitudes and behaviors after having viewed the film. Future visual communications’ attempts in changing attitudes and behavior need to focus on positive, ordinary people representing an example in mitigating climate change. They also concluded that attitudes are more “amenable to change through
Implicit Associations Test (IAT). The IAT uses “stimuli presented at a level near the recognition threshold, implicit association tasks attempt to assess perceptual phenomena that may be present within an individual at a preconscious level” (p. 94) to estimate what kind of associations people make after having viewed the movies. Results verify a correlation between having watched either movie and making donations (behavior change) for environmental issues, consequently actively taking action. A vast majority of previous studies (Holt & Cartmell, 2013; Lundy et al., 2007; Meyers et al., 2011) examined effects on viewers of documentaries focused on the topic of agriculture. All studies follow a qualitative research design through a focus-group study, a journaling research design and a survey study followed by a group discussion. Anew, regardless of the studies’ varied research objectives, all studies provide evidence on documentaries’ effectiveness for short-term as well as long-term effects, which is in line with previous research stated above and offers new insights of long-term effects. Schema theory, used in their studies, focuses on the receiving end of communication by which the receiver links newly available information to past experiences and prior knowledge and cognitively structures it (Lundy et al., 2007). “Individuals use schemas to process incoming information and link it to stored information” (p. 4) drawing on Graber (1988). Framing theory organizes received information in socially constructed frames that add meaning to the social world around us. These cognitively socially constructed frames are a reflection on how we structure the world around, being socially influenced (Lundy et al., 2007). Questions that arise, having reviewed this study, are whether the schemas that people have cognitively structured around Veganism are currently re-constructed, considering that it is heavily discussed in mainstream media. Will watching a pro-Vegan documentary film change a pre- constructed schema? Another qualitative study by Laursen & Brickley (2011) examined the effectiveness of a documentary in regard to how university students’ perception of scientists potentially change before and after having viewed a documentary on the topic. Perceptions of scientists were positively changed from a socially constructed image of scientists as somewhat distorted to a more accurate perception on how to look at scientists differently. This is an important for this study because they also analyzed perception changes and because they concluded that participants’ “views will change only if they become aware of their own preconceptions and see alternative portrayals of science and scientists” (p. 135). Which is another finding that motivates this study and gives reason to conduct a pre-test prior to viewing the documentary.
The role of documentaries in social movements, behavior changes and knowledge increase in regard to environmental issues has become “a popular and significant vehicle for communication scholars analyzing media” (Janpol & Dilts, 2016, p. 91), which was discussed and consented by many other (e.g., Janpol & Dilts, 2016 drawing on Open, 2007; Lindenfeld, 2010; Monani, 2008, Rosteck & Frentz, 2009 ) and thereof of high interest in regard to the current social movement around Veganism.
A quantitative study undertaken by Lea, Crawford & Worsley (2006) examined males’ and females’ perceived barriers and benefits of the consumption of a PBD and found out that the greatest barrier detected was lack of information about plant-based dieting. With focus on gender differences, this study points out, just like similar studies (Beardsworth et al., 2002; Burrow, 2017; Mallyon et al., 2010; Prättälä et al., 2007; Rosenfeld & Turner et al., 2013;), that women are more likely to reduce meat and become Vegetarians, conceive their dietary choices as more important than men and associate their diet with certain beliefs such as health impacts, environmental benefits and animal welfare. Last but not least women still to this day have a different role in society than men when it comes to food. The latter referring to women’s positions in traditional family structures, being responsible for the household, food purchases and the family’s overall health. In a similar vein, several studies have concluded that women are more likely to eat healthier diets (Beardsworth et al., 2002; Lea, Crawford & Worsley, 2006, drawing on Kearney et al., 2000; Rosenfeld & Burrow, 2017 and Worsley and Worsley, 1989). Generally speaking, more women than men are reducing their meat intake (Kalof et al., 1999; Lea, Crawford & Worsley, 2006, drawing on Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1997; Lea and Worsley, 2004; Rosenfeld & Burrow, 2017 ). In summary, “the main sex differences were that more women than men believed PBDs could help people remain healthy, provide plenty of energy, be tasty, and could help the environment and animal welfare” (Lea, Crawford, Worlsey, 2006, p. 833). In conjunction with these findings, another quantitative research specialized their study on gender differences in regard to nutritional attitudes and choices (Beardsworth et al., 2002). Significant differences were detected and related to how femininity and masculinity is being socially constructed, drawing on Harding (1998). As research shows, meat is considered to be masculine and connected with power while fruits and vegetables are perceived to be feminine (Adams, 1990; Lea, Crawford & Worsley, 2006, drawing on Twigg, 1983; Prättälä et al., 2007; Turner et al., 2013). As an outcome of this, the study shows that more men than women assess meat as part of a healthy diet
order to motivate people to change to a PBD, information beyond health benefits need to be communicated. Examples given are environmental benefits, animal welfare and improvement of quality of life, which is another fruitful finding for this study. Research gap The findings from previous research depicted that documentary films’ effectiveness have been researched before. The effectiveness of documentary films has been largely researched thus far, as the findings from previous research verifies. Effectiveness, in this regard, depended firstly on the various different research objectives and research questions and secondly on what exactly the documentary wished to advocate. Previous research on documentary films consequently focused on, for instance, whether there was an increase of awareness about climate change among its audience. As shown above these studies have mainly focused on behavioral intentions. To my knowledge, there is limited empirical evidence of an analysis of gendered perception within the study of documentary’s audience reception. Which consequently is the chosen aim here. Previous documentaries have focused on the ongoing debate of climate change and the agricultural industry while the documentary used in this study focuses on people’s individual nutritional choices and how that affects their personal health, their personal impact on the environment and how their personal own doings effect animal welfare. Thereof, it is a very sensitive and personal matter. Additionally, the documentary reveals parallels between corperations’ donations made toward health organizations to hide negative health impacts of meat and dairy products’ consumption. These parallels show that the agriculture industry makes donations to health organizations tackling diseases that are caused by the agriculture industry itself. And these donations are supported and encouraged by government-funded projects. These parallels concern society as a whole and explain the phenomenon of political consumerism and its connection to Veganism, connecting Veganism with lifestyle politics. The research problem of this study is to analyze audiences’ perceptions, before and immediately after having viewed the documentary What the Health. The focus of this study and the juncture of the scientific problem is to analyze audiences’ perceptions in regard to gender differences in a time where scientifically based dietary choices are more debated than ever and the discourses of masculinity and femininity are changing (Buschmeyer & Lengersdorf, 2016; Sobal, 2005; Sumpter, 2015). Meat and dairy production is rapidly increasing even though it has been proven to be negative for the environment and meat and dairy consumption negative for people’s health and animal welfare (Graça, Oliveira & Calheiros, 2015; Lea, Crawford & Worsley, 2006; Rosenfeld
& Burrow, 2017). A great social change is needed and by understanding people’s perceptions and possible attitude changes after having viewed the documentary, researchers can learn to have an impact on people’s nutritional perceptions in the future. Therefore, it was necessary to generate further knowledge to evaluate audiences’ perception of this documentary and to identify gender differences in regard to nutrition communication from a media and communication research perspective. There are irrefutably other factors than gender attributes that affect individual’s perception of viewing such a documentary that elucidate perception differences, which need to be taken into account when analyzing the data collected. However, for the purpose and the scope of this study, emphasis will be put on gender differences within the perception analysis. A research gap had been found in regard to gendered orientation toward a PBD and their perceptions to it. Aiming to increase the consumption of a PBD, the documentary offers an ideal case-study, having incorporated a story line that is both appealing to men and women (K. Andersen, personal communication, February 14, 2019). Another thing identified is the lack of scientific media and communication research on the subject in regard to gender differences. The research problem of this study is to investigate audiences’ perception changes of a PBD after having viewed the documentary film What the Health and research upon gender differences in regard to their perception of a PBD. The question of whether male and female audiences perceive a PBD differently after having watched the documentary film What the Health is still unanswered and consequently explored in this study.
consequently avoid cognitive dissonance. In her earlier work, Olausson (2011) studied the relationship of scientific knowledge in regards to social representation and how people are making sense of this knowledge. Noted by Olausson (2011), drawing on Moscovici (2000) and SRT anew, “in order for an emerging understanding, such as about climate change, to become implemented in everyday cognition, it needs to be discursively anchored in a familiar interpretative framework” (p. 285). As a normative point of departure, SRT and the processes of anchoring and objectification highlight how people make sense of the unknown and is linked to their existing beliefs, values, and experiences. Understanding this phenomenon is pivotal for future analysis and an important learning for the study of audience perception. For the purpose of this study, I am building on the necessity of empirical analyses to better understand the relationship of media information and audience perception in regard to a PBD. To examine the dynamics of audience’s perceptions of new information made available to them, framing theory and schema theory are of high importance (Lundy et al., 2007; McQuail, 2010). When people receive messages, they interpret them based on past experiences, and previously held meanings. This needs to be taken into account when analyzing viewers’ perceptions on a PBD in regard to the documentary What the Health. People interpret messages based on frames that are “socially shared and persistent over time, that work symbolically to meaningfully structure the social word” (Lundy et al., 2007 drawing on Reese, Gandy, & Grant, 2001, p. 11). Moreover, people use so-called schemas to organize information made available to them to existing knowledge. This existing knowledge can be seen as multiple groups to which this new information is presented to, grouping knowledge of the same kind accordingly (Lundy et al., 2007, drawing on Graber, 1988 ). Another important theory in regard to media effects is the social cognitive theory (henceforth SCT) that furthermore builds on the premise of learning and how our individual behavior is guided by four different stages (Nabi & Oliver, 2009). Important to mention in this regard is the phenomenon of feedback, in which the individual will not adapt a certain behavior if she expects to receive negative feedback about it (Nabi & Oliver, 2009).
Does our prevailing culture perceive certain attributes in life as gendered? Is food perceived to be gendered? And more specifically is meat considered to be male and vegetables considered to be female? Scholarly work on masculinity has analyzed gendered perceptions of meat consumption and found meat to be masculine with men increasing their meat consumption to be perceived to be more masculine than others; building on the theoretical framework of ‘hegemonic masculinity 3 ’ (Sobal, 2005, drawing on Connell, 1995, 2000). The concept of ‘hegemonic masculinity’ is among the most dominant concepts of masculinity and men and was initially theorized by Raewyn Connell (1995, 2000), explaining the relationship of gender and power in modern Wester societies. As the fundamental theory within masculinity and men, it has been applied to gendered nutrition research, challenging the version of an idealized man within society who follows certain hegemonic ideals (Buschmeyer & Lengersdorf, 2016; Sobal, 2005; Sumpter, 2015). According to Connell’s concept of ‘hegemonic masculinity’, the male sex role is a dominant one and superior and opposing to the female sex role. As a normative point of departure, ‘hegemonic masculinity’ builds the fundament within gender studies but has also frequently and heavily been criticized (Buschmeyer & Lengersdorf, 2016; Sobal, 2005; Sumpter, 2015). When applying ‘hegemonic masculinity’ to the portrayals of mass media onto our Western society, Sumpter (2015), drawing on Stibbe (2004), found that “’true’, or hegemonic, masculinity was displayed through the size of one’s muscles, eating meat, drinking beer, watching television, sexual conquests, and a disregard for dietary health” (p. 105). Not following these manly qualities were consequently thought to lead to a man’s disapproval within society. These manly ideals, arguably outdated (Buschmeyer & Lengersdorf, 2016; Sobal, 2005; Sumpter, 2015), can be referred back to historical and cultural developments, from manly hunting to a man’s wish of superiority within a group, men having to detach themselves from emotions, having to empower themselves among other men and consequently eating meat as a sign of manhood (Buschmeyer & Lengersdorf, 2016: Sobal, 2005; Sumpter, 2015). Contemporary research on gendered nutrition has challenged this ideal of masculinity and offers alternative versions of masculinity that propose alternative meat-consumption practices (Buschmeyer & Lengersdorf, 2016: Sobal, 2005; Sumpter, 2015). This line of thinking challenges the concept of ‘hegemonic masculinity’ as does this study, acknowledging new versions of masculinity and hegemonic values. The growing number of examples of these new versions of masculinity and gendered food gives (^3) The concept of ‚hegemonic masculinity’ originates from Connell’s social theory of gender and is applicable to the Western world
