Chapter 1 Vocab

Behavior modification-procedures that combine conditioning and modeling to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increasing

desirable responses.

Behaviorism-an approach that regards directly observable events- stimuli and responsive- as the appropriate focus of study and that

views the development of behavior as taking place through classical and operant conditioning.

Child development-a field of study devoted to understanding all aspects of human constancy and change from conception through

adolescence.

Chronosystem-in ecological systems theory, temporal changes in children’s environments, which produce new conditions that affect

development. These changes can be imposed externally or arise from within the child.

Clinical interview-an interview method in which the researcher uses a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant’s

point of view.

Clinical, or case study, method-a method in which the researcher attempts to understand an individual child by combining interview

data, observations, and sometimes tests scores.

Cognitive-developmental theory-an approach introduced by Piaget that views children as actively constructing knowledge as they

manipulate and explore their world and that regards cognitive development as taking place in stages.

Cohort effects-the effects of cultural-historical change on the accuracy of longitudinal and cross-sectional findings. Children born in a

particular time period are influenced by a particular set of cultural and historical conditions.

Contexts-unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in markedly different paths of

development.

Continuous development-a view that regards development as a cumulative process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills

that were there to begin with. Distinguished from discontinuous development.

Correlation coefficient-a number, ranging from +1.00 to -1.00, that describes the strength and direction of the relationship between

two variables.

Correlational design-a research design in which the researcher gathers information on individuals without altering participants’

experiences and then examines relationships between variables. Does not permit inference about cause and effect.

Cross-sectional design-a research design in which groups of people differing in age are studied at the same time. Distinguished from

longitudinal design.

Dependent variable-the variable the investigator expects to be influenced by the independent variable in an experiment.

Developmental cognitive neuroscience-an area of investigation that brings together researchers from psychology, biology,

neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing child’s cognitive processing

and behavior patterns.

Developmental science-an interdisciplinary field devoted to the study of all changes we experience throughout the lifespan.

Discontinuous development-a view of development as a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world

emerge at specific times. Distinguished from continuous development.

Dynamic systems perspective-a view that regards the child’s mind, body, and physical and social worlds as a dynamic, integrated

system. A change in any part of the system leads the child to reorganize his behavior so that various components of the system work

together again but in a more complex and effective way.

Ecological systems theory-Bronfenbrenner’s approach, which views the child as developing within a complex system of relationships

affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment, from immediate settings of family and school to broad cultural values

and programs.

Ethnography-a method in which the researcher attempts to understand the unique values and social processes of a culture or a

distinct social group through participant observation- living with its members and taking field notes over an extended period of time.

Ethology-an approach concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history.

Evolutionary developmental psychology-an approach that seeks to understand the adaptive value of species- wide cognitive,

emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age.

Exosystem-in ecological systems theory, social settings that do not contain children but that affect children’s experiences in

immediate settings. Examples are parents’ workplace, health and welfare services available in the company, and parent’s social

networks.

Experimental design-a research design in which the investigator randomly assigns participants to treat conditions. Permits

inferences about cause and effect.

Independent variable-the variable that researcher expects to cause changes in anther variable in an experiment.

Information processing-an approach that views the human mind as a symbol- manipulating system through which information flows

and that regards cognitive development as a continuous process.

Longitudinal design-a research design in which participants are studied repeatedly at different ages. Distinguished from cross-

sectional design.

Macrosystem-in ecological systems theory, cultural values, laws, customs, and resources that influence experiences and interactions

at inner levels of the environment.

Maturation-a genetically, determined, naturally unfolding course of growth.

Mesosystem-in ecological systems theory, connections between children’s immediate settings.

Microgenetic design-a research design in which investigators present children with a novel task and follow their mastery over a

series of closely spaced sessions.

Microsystem-in ecological systems theory, the innermost level of the environment, consisting of activities and interaction patterns

in the child’s immediate surroundings.

Naturalistic observation-a method in which the researcher goes into the natural environment to observe the behavior of interest.

Distinguished from structured observation.

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Chapter 1 Vocab  Behavior modification- procedures that combine conditioning and modeling to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increasing desirable responses.  Behaviorism- an approach that regards directly observable events- stimuli and responsive- as the appropriate focus of study and that views the development of behavior as taking place through classical and operant conditioning.  Child development- a field of study devoted to understanding all aspects of human constancy and change from conception through adolescence.  Chronosystem- in ecological systems theory, temporal changes in children’s environments, which produce new conditions that affect development. These changes can be imposed externally or arise from within the child.  Clinical interview- an interview method in which the researcher uses a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant’s point of view.  Clinical, or case study, method- a method in which the researcher attempts to understand an individual child by combining interview data, observations, and sometimes tests scores.  Cognitive-developmental theory- an approach introduced by Piaget that views children as actively constructing knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world and that regards cognitive development as taking place in stages.  Cohort effects- the effects of cultural-historical change on the accuracy of longitudinal and cross-sectional findings. Children born in a particular time period are influenced by a particular set of cultural and historical conditions.  Contexts- unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in markedly different paths of development.  Continuous development- a view that regards development as a cumulative process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with. Distinguished from discontinuous development.  Correlation coefficient- a number, ranging from +1.00 to -1.00, that describes the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.  Correlational design- a research design in which the researcher gathers information on individuals without altering participants’ experiences and then examines relationships between variables. Does not permit inference about cause and effect.  Cross-sectional design- a research design in which groups of people differing in age are studied at the same time. Distinguished from longitudinal design.  Dependent variable- the variable the investigator expects to be influenced by the independent variable in an experiment.  Developmental cognitive neuroscience- an area of investigation that brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing child’s cognitive processing and behavior patterns.  Developmental science- an interdisciplinary field devoted to the study of all changes we experience throughout the lifespan.  Discontinuous development- a view of development as a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times. Distinguished from continuous development.  Dynamic systems perspective- a view that regards the child’s mind, body, and physical and social worlds as a dynamic, integrated system. A change in any part of the system leads the child to reorganize his behavior so that various components of the system work together again but in a more complex and effective way.  Ecological systems theory- Bronfenbrenner’s approach, which views the child as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment, from immediate settings of family and school to broad cultural values and programs.  Ethnography- a method in which the researcher attempts to understand the unique values and social processes of a culture or a distinct social group through participant observation- living with its members and taking field notes over an extended period of time.  Ethology- an approach concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history.  Evolutionary developmental psychology- an approach that seeks to understand the adaptive value of species- wide cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age.  Exosystem- in ecological systems theory, social settings that do not contain children but that affect children’s experiences in immediate settings. Examples are parents’ workplace, health and welfare services available in the company, and parent’s social networks.  Experimental design- a research design in which the investigator randomly assigns participants to treat conditions. Permits inferences about cause and effect.  Independent variable- the variable that researcher expects to cause changes in anther variable in an experiment.  Information processing- an approach that views the human mind as a symbol- manipulating system through which information flows and that regards cognitive development as a continuous process.  Longitudinal design- a research design in which participants are studied repeatedly at different ages. Distinguished from cross- sectional design.  Macrosystem- in ecological systems theory, cultural values, laws, customs, and resources that influence experiences and interactions at inner levels of the environment.  Maturation- a genetically, determined, naturally unfolding course of growth.  Mesosystem- in ecological systems theory, connections between children’s immediate settings.  Microgenetic design- a research design in which investigators present children with a novel task and follow their mastery over a series of closely spaced sessions.  Microsystem- in ecological systems theory, the innermost level of the environment, consisting of activities and interaction patterns in the child’s immediate surroundings.  Naturalistic observation- a method in which the researcher goes into the natural environment to observe the behavior of interest. Distinguished from structured observation.

 Nature-nurture controversy- debate among theorists about whether genetic or environmental factors are more important in development.  Noble savage- Rousseau’s view of the child as naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth.  Normative approach- an approach in which age- related averages are computed to represent typical development.  Psychoanalytic perspective- Freud’s view of personality development, in which children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. The way these conflicts are resolved determines psychological adjustment.  Psychosexual theory- Freud’s theory, which emphasizes that how parents manage children’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years of life is crucial for healthy personality development.  Psychosocial theory- Erickson’s theory, which emphasizes that at each Freudian stage, individuals not only develop a unique personality but also acquire attitudes and skills that help them become active, contributing members of their society.  Random assignment- an unbiased procedure for assigning participants to treatment groups, which increases the chances that participants’ characteristics will be equally distributed across treatment conditions in an experiment.  Resilience- the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development.  Sensitive period- a time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences.  Sequential design- a research design in which several similar cross- sectional or longitudinal studies (called sequences) are conducted at varying times.  Social learning theory- an approach that emphasizes the role of modeling, or observational learning, in the development of behavior.  Sociocultural theory- Vygotsky’s theory, in which children acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community’s culture through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of their society.  Stage- a qualitative change in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterizes a specific period of development.  Structured interview- an interview method in which each participant is asked the same questions in the same way.  Structured observation- a method in which the investigator sets up a laboratory situation that evokes the behavior of interest so that every participant has an equal opportunity to display the response. Distinguished from naturalistic observation.  Tabula rasa- Locke’s view of the child as a “black slate” whose character is shaped entirely by experience.  Theory- an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior. Chapter 2 Vocab  Allele- each of two forms of a gene located at the same place on the autosomes.  Autosomes- the 22 matching chromosome pairs in each human cell.  Behavioral genetics- a field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature and nurture to the diversity in human traits and abilities.  Canalization- the tendency of heredity to restrict the development of some characteristics to just one or a few outcomes.  Carrier- a heterozygous individual who can pass a recessive gene to his or her children.  Chromosomes- rodlike structures in the cell nucleus that store and transmit genetic information.  Collectivist societies- societies in which people define themselves as part of a group and stress group over individual goals. Distinguished from individualistic societies.  Concordance rate- the percentage of instances in which both members of a twin pair show a trait when it is present in one pair member, use to study the contribution of heredity to emotional and behavior disorders.  Crossing over- during meiosis, the exchange of genes between chromosomes next to each other.  Deoxyribonucleic acid- long, double-stranded molecules that make up chromosomes.  Dominant- recessive inheritance- a pattern of inheritance in which, under heterozygous conditions, the influence of only one allele is apparent.  Epigenesis- growth centers in the bones where new cartilage cells are produced and gradually harden.  Extended- family household- a household in which parent and child love with one or more adult relatives.  Fraternal, or dizygotic, twins- twins resulting from the release and fertilization of two ova. They are genetically no more alike than ordinary siblings. Distinguished from identical, or monozygotic, twins.  Gametes- human sperm and ova, which contain half as many chromosomes as regular body cells.  Genetic counseling- a communication process designed to help couples assess their chances of giving birth to a baby with a hereditary disorder and choose the best course of action in view of risks and family goals.  Genetic- environmental correlation- the idea that heredity influences the environments to which individuals are exposed.  Genetic imprinting- a pattern of inheritance in which alleles are imprinted, or chemically marked, in such a way that one pair member is activated regardless of its makeup.  Genotype- an individual’s genetic makeup  Heritability estimate- a statistic that measures the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors.  Heterozygous- having two different alleles at the same place on a pair of chromosomes. Distinguished from homozygous.  Homozygous- having two identical alleles at the same place on a pair of chromosomes. Distinguished from heterozygous.  Identical, or monozygotic, twins- twins that result when a zygote, during the early stages of duplication, divides in two.  Incomplete dominance- a pattern of inheritance in which both alleles are expressed in the phenotype, resulting in a combined trait or one that is intermediate between the two.  Individualistic societies- societies in which people think of themselves as separate entities and are largely concerned with their own personal needs. Distinguished from collective societies.

Key Concepts in Child Development and Psychology, Study notes of Childhood Development

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