The Crisis in Education: Access and Quality, Lecture notes of Business Accounting

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Global Thematic Consultation on Education and the Post 2015 Development Framework

Making

Education For All

a reality

March 2013

Executive Summary

The education sector has a long history of global goals and frameworks. Since the Jomtien World Conference on Education in 1990, there has been considerable progress in getting more children – including girls – into school, and reducing the number of non-­‐literate adults. Yet there are still 131 million children of primary and lower secondary school age out of school and 755 million non-­‐literate adults^1 , and the quality of education is often woefully poor. This failure to ensure that schooling actually leads to education – which is denying hundreds of millions their rights – exists despite quality education being both emphasized in the Jomtien declaration and included in the goals agreed in the Dakar Framework for Action on Education For All (2000). Political will has been missing for those aspects of education – quality, lifelong learning, adult literacy, inclusive education, gender equality beyond parity of access – that were not included in the more narrowly focused Millennium Development Goals. This points to the mobilizing power of those goals, and to the need to recapture the broad understanding of education and its purpose in future goals and frameworks. The starting point: the right to education The right to education has been recognized at least since the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, and has since been reiterated and elaborated through numerous human rights treaties and conventions. These treaties, their use and interpretation have produced a framework through which the right to education is understood to comprise four essential and related components: availability, accessibility, acceptability and adaptability. This implies that States have a responsibility to ensure non-­‐discriminatory, inclusive education at all levels, including universal primary education; teachers and learning environments to guarantee quality; and finances to guarantee this. What we want: universal, equitable access to quality education Despite progress, there is today a crisis in education that can be characterized both in terms of access, and in terms of quality. Inequity and inequality cut across both sets of issues. Hundreds of millions of people still have no access to even basic education, and globally we are 1.7 million teachers short of the number needed to guarantee universal primary education by 2015. And it is the most marginalized and excluded – girls, children with disabilities, people from minorities, those living in fragile states – who are most likely to miss out. Secondly, poor quality education means that many children cannot read a single sentence after even three years of schooling. Neither of these crises can be treated separately – access without quality doesn’t produce education; quality without access entrenches inequality. Rather, equity, quality and access must be sought together. Measurement of access must be broader than primary school enrolment (e.g. completion, transition, inclusion, equity) and measurement of quality must include the key elements agreed as essential for a quality education

• trained teachers, quality learning environments and relevant curricula – as

• There is a need for global goals to drive action, but varying national contexts may require national (or local) benchmarks and measurement
• Goals and indicators must emphasize equity and equality, with consistent disaggregation of indicators to give a better view of marginalization and diversity.
• Goals should be comprehensive and drive progress on the broad aim of equitable, universal access to quality education. The experience of the MDGs argues against the narrowing of the agenda to, for example, literacy and numeracy (though this may be part of the agenda).
• Goals and measurement should be designed with a view to how to achieve outcomes; this can include key inputs where there is consensus (trained teachers, quality learning environments, etc) and process goals such as citizen participation and financing.
• Goals should be comprehensible and compelling if they are to mobilize the political and social will required for our aims to be achieved.

Introduction: the unfinished business of Education For

All

2015 marks the deadlines for achievement of both the Education For All (EFA) Dakar Framework For Action and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and falls shortly after the end points of the UN Decades on Literacy and on Education for Sustainable Development. Globally, there has been a significant transformation in the education sector since 2000, when the governments of the world agreed both the EFA framework (in collaboration with civil society and other stakeholders) and, subsequently, the MDGs. There has been progress, in particular on access to education. Yet it is important not to overstate this progress, nor to deny the complexity of the challenges remaining, which encompass both the unfinished business of the EFA and MDG agendas, and newly emerging challenges. In terms of access, the latest data^2 show that there are almost 70 million fewer children missing out on primary and lower secondary school than in 2000. There are also more than 100 million fewer adults who cannot read and write, compared to the early 1990s^3. But these figures, whilst giving cause for hope, still leave much to be desired: there are still 131 million children of primary and lower secondary school age not enrolled in school, with the numbers missing out increasing at upper secondary level, and hundreds of millions more are missing out on early childhood care and education. Around the world today, UNESCO estimates that there are 755 million young people and adults who cannot read and write, of whom 127 million are aged 15 to 24, and nearly two thirds are women^4. And recent trends are profoundly troubling. Since 2008, the number of children not in primary school has not shifted, and in sub-­‐Saharan Africa, despite progress in some countries, has in fact grown. Transition to secondary school remains weak, and globally, there were more children missing out on lower secondary school in 2010 than in 2008, an increase that can be attributed to poor progress in sub-­‐Saharan Africa and South and West Asia. Moreover, global indicators can also conceal disparities between and within countries: inequalities in educational access are persistent and can be severe even in the richest countries. Around the world, girls are still more likely to be out of school than boys (including because of early marriage^5 ); rural children are twice as likely to be out of school as urban children; an estimated third of the children now out of school have disabilities; and children from the poorest fifth of households are four times more likely to be out of school than children from the richest fifth^6. The issue is of course not just one of access to school. The figures for school enrolment do not tell us what kind of education children are receiving once they arrive in school. The need to ensure a quality education has long been included in international treaties, was emphasized in the Jomtien World Conference on Education in 1990, and was one of the six EFA goals agreed in Dakar in 2000. It has always been highlighted as a priority by civil society. Yet the narrowing of the education agenda to the access goals included in the MDGs is seen by many as having contributed to the neglect of the issue of the quality of education; the

1. The Right to Education as the framework

The post-­‐2015 goals are to be an initiative of the United Nations, as are the current MDGs. As such, the post-­‐2015 development goals must enshrine and reinforce international human rights standards. Explicit attention needs to be drawn to making the right to education the guiding framework of a post-­‐ 2015 education goal. The right to education is not simply a generic notion that people are entitled to some form of education; it is a very specific, well-­‐developed set of norms and obligations that governments worldwide have agreed to through global, regional and domestic accords over more than 60 years^7. Among the international treaties that have built the right to education into what it is today are^8 :  The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)  The 1960 UNESCO Convention Against Discrimination in Education (CADE)  The 1966 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD)  The 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)  The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)  The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)  The 1989 ILO Convention 169, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention  The 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) The articles of these treaties pertinent to the right to education are too numerous to replicate here. These provisions have been extensively practiced, applied and detailed by the U.N. Human Rights Commission/Council, U.N. human rights monitoring committees, U.N. Special Rapporteurs, judiciaries at the regional and domestic level, and academics. From this rich practice, the right to education, as found in articles 13 and 14 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights and articles 28 and 29 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, is considered to comprise four interrelated and essential features – commonly referred to as the “4-­‐As” – stipulating that education must be available, accessible, acceptable, and adaptable:

• Available: educational institutions and programs must be available in sufficient numbers and free of charge; this includes the availability of trained teachers and adequate infrastructure including buildings and sanitation;
• Accessible: educational institutions and programs have to be accessible to everyone, in safety, without discrimination on any grounds. This includes physical, economic and social accessibility with no direct or indirect costs; positive measures must be taken to guarantee equitable and equal access for all;
• Acceptable: the form and substance of education, including curricula and teaching methods, has to be relevant, culturally appropriate, of good quality and in accordance with the best interests of every child; this includes a safe

and healthy school environment and professional, trained and supported teachers;

• Adaptable: education has to be flexible, so that it can adapt to the needs of changing societies and communities, and respond to the needs of different learners within their specific social and cultural context, including the evolving capacities of the child^9. This unpacking of the right to education gives helpful guidance on how education rights may be realized in different settings, and includes clear implications for a post-­‐2015 framework, including that states have responsibilities to guarantee:
• Availability of education at all levels, from early childhood to adult literacy; this includes universal, free and compulsory primary education, 10 and increasingly universal and free secondary education^11
• Education that is non-­‐discriminatory and inclusive at all levels^12
• Education that is of high quality, requiring sufficient professional, trained and well-­‐supported teachers^13 and continuously improved, safe and protective teaching and learning environments^14
• Education that is aimed towards the full development of personality, talents, and abilities^15
• The national and international prioritization of resources for education in order to realize this right^16.

2. Principles for education post 2015

With this context in mind, Beyond 2015 has developed the following principles for a framework on education post-­‐2015. These take in the ultimate goal (an integrated focus on equity and equality, quality and access); how to achieve this (with emphasis on teachers, learning environments and curricula); the structural elements necessary to achieve this (state responsibility, adequate and appropriate finance, and democratic governance including widespread participation); and finally what this means for goal-­‐setting. What is needed: progress on quality, access and equity as inextricably linked Despite progress, it is undeniable that an education crisis is continuing in many parts of the world. It is possible to distinguish different aspects of the crisis:

• A crisis of availability and accessibility : Net enrolment in primary school reached 89 percent in 2010, up from 82% in 1999^17. Globally, gender parity in primary and secondary education is close to being achieved 18. Nevertheless, progress is slowing: 131 million children and young people are still out of school and hundreds of millions of adults still lack opportunities to learn even basic literacy^19. There is a gap of 1.7 million teachers in order to achieve universal primary education by 2015. And it is the most marginalized
  • including those living in poverty, girls and women, child laborers, children with disabilities, those from ethnic, linguistic and cultural minorities, children who have lost their parents or are living on the streets, people living

Moreover, enrolment in primary school is generally a poor indicator of meaningful access, and indicates little about completion of a full cycle of early childhood education and primary education, transition to secondary school, or equitable, non-­‐discriminatory access to quality teaching and learning while in school. A response that tackles the crisis in access to education must therefore include at least:

• A strong focus on full inclusion of the groups and populations that are most marginalized, discriminated against and hardest to reach, without segregation^29. This includes not only continuing attention to gender equity and equality, to specific populations and locations and to the inclusion of disabled children in mainstream schools, but also effective training of teachers for working with children with differing needs, appropriate curricula, a diversity of teaching and learning methods, and bilingual, intercultural education where appropriate. There should be a particular focus on those facing discrimination on multiple grounds (e.g. girls with disabilities).
• Indicators of access that are more meaningful than enrolment – which is typically measured once at the beginning of the year and can often mask low attendance rates and high dropout rates. Access should take in not only enrolment but also attendance and completion.
• A clearer link , as discussed above, between access and quality – the relevant access is not to schooling or classrooms, but to quality education. What is quality education? Education was described by the Delors 1997 report for UNESCO – and again in the World Education Forum in 2000 – as “learning to know, to do, to live together and to be”. There have been various efforts to define “quality education”, including the 2011 report of the UN Special Rapporteur on the right to education, the 2005 Education For All Global Monitoring Report, the UNICEF report on Defining Quality in Education (2000), the Global Campaign for Education’s World Assembly resolutions (2004, 2008, 2011) and Quality Resource Pack (2008) and the definition provided by the Inter-­‐Agency Network on Education in Emergencies (INEE) 30. The consensus emerging across these definitions is that quality education is one which provides individuals and their societies with the ability to develop and thrive personally, socially, politically and culturally; that develops the learner’s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest; and is geared towards the strengthening of citizenship, human dignity and a culture of peace, as proclaimed in Article 26 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This means it must results in the acquisition of knowledge (including in areas such as gender, health, nutrition), values (including non-­‐discrimination, cooperation and dialogue, peaceful resolution of conflicts), skills (including but not limited to literacy, numeracy and life skills), capabilities, and active

participation in society. Three key elements that also feature in each definition as crucial to achieve this are:

• Teachers and teaching : a well-­‐qualified and well-­‐supported teaching workforce, sufficient to guarantee reasonable class sizes and pupil-­‐ teacher ratios, who are knowledgeable in their subject areas and in pedagogy (some argue for child-­‐centered, participatory methods of teaching and learning), with assessment designed and used to facilitate learning and reduce disparities;
• Curriculum and content : comprehensible, relevant and meaningful curriculum that promotes learners’ rights, makes use of mother tongue languages, is inclusive, and includes play, sport and creative activities in addition to areas such as literacy, numeracy, natural, human and social science, as well as life skills including comprehensive sexuality education, health, nutrition, etc.
• Learning environment : adequate school infrastructure, facilities and environments which are healthy, safe, inclusive, protective, gender-­‐sensitive and well-­‐managed. There is a need for particular sensitivity to the learning environment in fragile or post-­‐conflict situations. Quality education, therefore, builds knowledge, capabilities and life skills and values, and develops the creative, social and emotional capabilities of learners. It fosters broad cognitive and personal development, including critical and higher order thinking, problem-­‐solving, self-­‐discipline, and can support active citizenship, leadership, and more 31. Quality education must also be non-­‐ discriminatory; equality is in itself a key component of quality education. What is learning? Quality education encompasses learning. At its most basic, this must include literacy and numeracy: it is unacceptable that millions of children and young people are attending school without even learning these foundational skills. Beyond these minimum requirements, broader and deeper learning is both required to realize the right to education, and recognized as crucial by experts and international bodies. While many of the efforts to define learning are still subject to debate and critique, there is consensus at least about the need for a broad conception. For example, UNESCO, in its EFA Global Monitoring Report, has distinguished three main types of skills that all young people need: foundation, transferable, and technical and vocational skills^32. The Learning Metrics Task Force convened by UNESCO and the Brookings Institution has defined seven learning domains: physical well-­‐being, social and emotional, culture and the arts, literacy and communication, learning approaches and cognition, numeracy and mathematics, and science and technology^33. All of these domains need to be included in any future learning objectives. The U.N. Secretary-­‐General’s Global Education First Initiative includes a pillar on ‘fostering global citizenship’ that explicitly aims to

countries; in Malawi, for instance, the number of pupils per teacher ranges from an average of 36 in some districts to 120 in others. Moreover, millions of the teachers who are in place are untrained or under-­‐ trained: half of all teachers in Africa, for example, have no or low qualifications^39 and more than 20 percent of teachers in India are not professionally qualified^40. Low status and low pay for teachers, along with poorly functioning systems, mean that teachers around the world are receiving inadequate salaries that arrive days, months or sometimes years late. This contributes to poor teaching, teacher absence, attrition, failures in child protection, and poor learning environments^41. If governments truly care about quality education and learning, they must attract and retain the best possible candidates in teaching, by treating it as a respected profession, with clear professional standards, good quality training and adequate compensation. Training must include appropriate pre-­‐ service training as well as routine in-­‐service training, linked to professional development, so that teachers are up-­‐to-­‐date on the most recent curriculum content and pedagogy, have an understanding of child rights, non-­‐violence and inclusion, and understand a professional code of conduct. Truly inclusive education requires a well-­‐resourced system for providing support to classroom teachers to ensure they are effective, and can facilitate both access to education and quality learning experiences for all children. Learning environment With the increase in enrolment, many countries have successfully put children into rooms; it is now time to put students in classrooms – that is, effective spaces for learning, for collaboration, for critical thinking, for fostering ethics and democracy. Many schools are lacking the most basic of teaching and learning materials: textbooks, notebooks, science kits, pens, even chalk. Textbooks, including large-­‐print books and Braille books, as well as sign language, must be provided for children with disabilities. An enabling learning environment is also one embedded with values of inclusiveness, dialogue and collaboration, peaceful resolution of conflict and an ethic of care. It implies the possibility of democratic governance, where those in education may have direct participation over the processes that impact them. Finally, it implies recognizing that crucial learning takes place outside the classroom, where play and conviviality are recognized as key. Schools (and transport) need to be available so that children can reach them without walking long distances or separation from families. A rights-­‐based, child-­‐ friendly school also requires a healthy, hygienic and safe learning environment. Infrastructure should be adequate to ensure quality teaching for all, requiring, for example, adequate water and sanitation, sufficient separate toilets for girls, ramps and accommodation for persons with disabilities, and adequate infrastructure adapted to local climatic and security conditions^42. Curriculum

In addition, the education itself must be relevant to the needs of the students and community. A relevant curriculum that is culturally, linguistically, and socially understandable and applicable, and that promotes equality, tolerance, an understanding of rights, non-­‐discrimination and non-­‐violence, is the keystone of a quality education that supports learners in becoming active, contributing citizens. Civic education and health education need to be included in curricula from early years onwards. Gender-­‐sensitive and culturally-­‐sensitive curricula in schools are important in challenging stereotypes and combating gender-­‐based violence. Education for sustainable development can help support development of the Green Economy. Curricula should also provide such necessary life skills as comprehensive sexuality education, which should not only provide young people with knowledge but also help them to understand and address their rights, explicitly addressing gender and power^43.

4. How we get there: government responsibility, finance and

governance

This stated objective -­‐ equitable access to quality education for all without discrimination – and its requirements – trained teachers, safe and quality learning environments, and relevant, broad curricula – are well accepted. Yet these are not universally available – with the result that hundreds of millions of children, young people and adults are being denied their right to even the most basic education – because of structural factors connected to political will, financing, and governance. State responsibility for education as a human right and a public good The principles and requirements outlined above are stipulations of the right to education. According to international treaties, these are responsibilities of national governments, who must therefore progressively realize their achievement. Country-­‐owned and country-­‐led education policy, for which governments are accountable to their citizens, is a pre-­‐requisite of achieving quality education for all. International assistance should be aimed toward strengthening government systems – particularly where these are weak – and supporting national education plans. Concerted international efforts to advance education worldwide should focus on improving public education systems. Private education and privatization of parts of the education system must be adequately regulated and monitored, and development of private education should not take place unless the government has such regulatory capabilities. With public education as the focus, civil society should likewise be supported, as their advocacy holds governments accountable for upholding the right to education. Adequate and appropriate financing

international. The engagement of learners, teachers and other stakeholders is a crucial check on the use and direction of funding, and on the adaptability and acceptability, as well as the accessibility and availability, of education. Monitoring Finally, for quality education to be implemented in practice, States need to implement a transparent and effective monitoring system that examines and measures compliance and progress – and allows for redress. Quality norms and standards should inform education systems throughout a country, within a framework that provides guidelines whilst being sufficiently adaptable to allow for regional difference (e.g. in language) and trusting professional teachers to make decisions about teaching and learning. States must have support to ensure that they are able to monitor both private and public educational institutions across the country so that quality education becomes a tangible reality for all.

5. Setting our goals: global, aspirational and inspirational

The following requirements should be taken into account when developing education goals: Global targets to drive action, with national sensitivity : Post-­‐2015 education goals should represent global targets. This requires sensitivity to context: political, economic and environmental factors may make certain goals far harder to achieve in some countries or regions than others. Nevertheless, the politically unifying powers of the current MDGs have proven invaluable to their successes, and there is more to gain from the galvanizing forces offered by such global goals. Global goals rally commitment, focus political will and inspire monitoring, ensuring that ambitious actions are taken towards them. While global goals are essential, specific targets and monitoring need not necessarily take place at the global level; some goals may need national benchmarks, and aspects such as learning may be more appropriately measured at the national level, where testing can be designed in a culturally and linguistically appropriate way, responding to local needs. Goals and indicators that emphasise equity and equality : the lesson of the MDGs is that goals that focus only on aggregate progress without taking into account diversity, difference and exclusion can allow space for the most marginalized to be left behind, increasing rather than decreasing inequality. For this reason, goals should include indicators that disaggregate progress (e.g. by gender, income, disability, living situation, etc). There should also be room for national and sub-­‐national goal-­‐setting in this process, whilst still sitting within a global framework. Comprehensive goals : Goals should be designed to encourage significant progress in equitable access to quality education, including in learning. The lesson of the MDGs is that a narrow focus can lead to perverse outcomes by encouraging the neglect of other important targets. This argues strongly against a narrowing of the focus to literacy and numeracy – leading to the danger that

the countries with the furthest to go on this will concentrate on this alone. There is need rather for a framework that will emphasize quality in education more broadly, and that (whether or not it measures learning directly) will support progress in all learning domains and taking in critical skills, non-­‐discrimination, global citizenship, etc. A focus on how to achieve outcomes : where there is consensus on the conditions needed to achieve quality education, these must be prioritized in goal-­‐setting. So, for example, targets relating to improved standards of teacher training, pupil-­‐to-­‐trained-­‐teacher ratios, improved learning environments, and education systems will be crucial on driving progress on quality education for all. There should also be consideration of process targets relating to citizen participation. Comprehensible and compelling : Finally, a post-­‐2015 education goal needs to be aspirational and inspirational – that is, clearly understandable to all. There should be a top-­‐line message that can inspire governments and citizens alike. The psychological, moral, and political salience of the post-­‐2015 goals may have considerable impact on their success^48. Global goals on education must be presented in such a way that they are immediately comprehensible and compelling to citizens as a whole, in order to be able to mobilize the political and social will required for them to be achieved.

Charter of the United Nations; (c) The development of respect for the child’s parents, his or her own cultural identity, language and values, for the national values of the country in which the child is living, the country from which he or she may originate and for civilizations different from his or her own; (d) The preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship among all peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and persons of indigenous origin; (e) The development of respect for the natural environment. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2008) Article 24.1: States Parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to education. With a view to realizing this right without discrimination and on the basis of equal opportunity, States Parties shall ensure an inclusive education system at all levels and life long learning directed to: (a) The full development of human potential and sense of dignity and self-­‐worth, and the strengthening of respect for human rights, fundamental freedoms and human diversity; (b) The development by persons with disabilities of their personality, talents and creativity, as well as their mental and physical abilities, to their fullest potential;(c) Enabling persons with disabilities to participate effectively in a free society.

Annex 2. About this paper

This paper is issued on behalf of the Beyond 2015 campaign and drew on inputs from across the platform. The original draft was produced by a drafting team led by the Global Campaign for Education and with significant support from Results. The full drafting team included the following organizations:

• Global Campaign for Education
• Right to Education Project
• Results
• Education Dialogue Group
• Basic Education Coalition (US)
• Sightsavers
• Alliance 2015
• Save the Children International
• Idara-­‐e-­‐Taleem-­‐o-­‐Aagahi
• VSO
• International Disability Alliance
• Leonard Cheshire Disability
• Commonwealth Medical Trust
• Institute of Education (UK)
• Nigeria YCC
• Pina Palmera
• Lumos
• Arrow

Many of these organizations drew on broader consultations and discussions within their network, including a Global Campaign for Education Survey involving 18 coalitions and networks and 29 organizations across more than 40 countries.

• Thanks also go to additional Beyond 2015 members who contributed to subsequent drafts: International Women’s Health Coalition
• Oxfam International
• EuroNGOs
• Commonwealth Human Ecology Council
• CBM
• Family for Every Child
• Academics Stand Against Poverty. (^1) UIS (2012) Global Education Digest (^2) UIS database, assembled from government-­‐reported data http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/ReportFolders/ReportFolders.aspx (^3) UIS database http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/ReportFolders/ReportFolders.aspx (^4) UIS database http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/ReportFolders/ReportFolders.aspx (^5) ICRW (2006) Too young to wed (^6) Education For All Global Monitoring Report (2012) Policy Paper 04 – June 2012, UNESCO: Paris (^7) For example, there are 193 State parties to the CRC, 187 State parties to the CEDAW, and 160 State parties to the ICESCR. (^8) This list is not comprehensive. There are many other international treaties and declarations that enshrine the right to education, in particular as it applies to specific groups, such as the 2007 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (DRIP). (^9) Coomans, F., Ph.D. (2007, June). Identifying the key elements of the right to education: A focus on its core content. CRC Day of General Discussion. Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.crin.org/docs/Coomans-­‐ CoreContent-­‐Right%20to%20EducationCRC.pdf. See also UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment. See Right to Education Project, www.right-­‐to-­‐education.org (^10) UDHR §26(1), ICESCR §13(2), CADE §4, CRC §23, 28(1), CRPD §24(2) (^11) ICESCR §13(2), CADE §4, CRC §28(1) (^12) ICESCR §2(2), CADE, CEDAW §10, CRC §2, CRPD §24, DRIP §14(2) (^13) CRPD §24(4), CADE §4 ; , ICESCR § (^14) ICESCR §7, 13(2) (^15) UDHR §26(1), ICESCR §13(1), CRC §29(1), CRPD §24(1) (^16) ICESCR §2(1), CRC §4, CRPD §4(2) (^17) UNESCO (2012). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2012: Youth and skills: Putting education to work. Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002180/218003e.pdf (^18) UNESCO (2012). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2012: Youth and skills: Putting education to work. Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002180/218003e.pdf (^19) UIS database http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/ReportFolders/ReportFolders.aspx; 2010 data (^20) See eg UN (2010) Keeping the Promise ; Consortium for Street Children (2009) Street Children Statistics ; UNESCO (2012) Education For All Global Monitoring Report (^21) UNESCO (2012). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2012: Youth and skills: Putting education to work. Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002180/218003e.pdf (^22) http://www.unicef.org/pon95/educ0002.html (^23) http://www.uis.unesco.org/FactSheets/Documents/fs-­‐ 18 -­‐OOSC-­‐2.pdf (^24) http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DISABILITY/Resources/280658-­‐1239044853210/5995073-­‐ 1246917324202/Disability_Poverty_and_Schooling_in_Developing_Countries.pdf (^25) Guo Y. et al. The impact of HIV/AIDS on children’s educational outcome: a critical review of global literature. AIDS Care , 2012, 24 (8): 993-­‐1012. (^26) UNESCO (2011). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2011: The hidden crisis: Armed conflict and education. Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001907/190743e.pdf (^27) UIS (2012). UNESCO eAtlas of Out-­‐of-­‐School Children. http://www.app.collinsindicate.com/uis-­‐atlas-­‐out-­‐ of-­‐school-­‐children/en-­‐us