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A comprehensive overview of the visual system, covering key concepts such as visual transduction, the structure of the retina, photoreceptor function, and the visual cortex hierarchy. It also delves into the basics of the nervous system, including neuron structure, types of neurons, and the central and peripheral nervous systems. Suitable for students studying biology or related fields, offering a foundational understanding of visual perception and neural processes.
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Visual System The system responsible for processing visual information Eye The organ that detects light and converts it into neural signals Retina The layer at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptors Visual Transduction The process of converting light energy into neural signals in the retina Visual Cortex The part of the brain responsible for processing visual information
Primary Cortex The first area in the brain to receive visual information Secondary Cortex The area in the brain that receives inputs from the primary visual cortex Association Cortex The part of the brain that integrates visual information with other sensory inputs Senses The ability to convert different stimuli into neural impulses General Senses Senses found in many locations of the body, such as touch, pressure, temperature, pain, and proprioception
Distance and Depth The perception of a three-dimensional world from a two-dimensional retinal image Monocular Depth Perception The ability to perceive depth using one eye, based on learned associations and visual cues Binocular Depth Perception The ability to perceive depth using both eyes, based on the slight difference in the view of the world Side-facing Eyes Eyes positioned on the sides of the head, providing a larger field of vision Front-facing Eyes Eyes positioned in the front of the head, allowing for depth perception
Structure of the Retina The five layers of cells in the back of the eye responsible for processing visual information
The degree to which multiple photoreceptors send signals to a single neuron Distribution of Cones and Rods The arrangement of cones and rods in the retina, with cones concentrated in the fovea and rods in the periphery Eye Movement The continuous scanning of the visual field by the eyes, including involuntary movements and temporal integration Trichromatic Theory The theory that color is encoded by the ratio of activity of three types of cones Phototransduction The conversion of light into neural signals by photoreceptor cells
Rhodopsin The pigment present in rods that undergoes a chemical change in response to light Hyperpolarization The change in electrical potential of a cell, such as rods, in response to light Retina-Geniculate-Striate System The pathway of visual information from the retina to the primary visual cortex Optic Radiations Axons that carry visual information from the lateral geniculate nucleus to the striate cortex Visual Cortex Hierarchy The hierarchical organization of the visual system, with higher specificity and complex functions in the association cortex
Neurons in the visual cortex that respond to straight lines of particular orientation, direction, and motion Three Classes of Visual Cortex The primary visual cortex (V1), secondary visual cortex (V2), and visual association cortex, which receive visual inputs at different levels Sensation The detection of stimuli from the environment Perception The higher-order process of integrating, recognizing, and interpreting complex patterns and sensations Central Nervous System (CNS) Includes the brain and spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems Somatic Nervous System Interacts directly with the external environment Motor nerves Efferent nerves that exit the CNS Sensory nerves Afferent nerves that arrive at the CNS Autonomic Nervous System Helps regulate the internal environment Sympathetic Stimulates, organizes, and mobilizes organ activity in threatening situations
Axon Major external feature of a neuron Myelin Major external feature of a neuron Nodes of Ranvier Major external feature of a neuron Axon terminals Major external feature of a neuron Unipolar Neurons Have 1 process extending from the cell body
Bipolar Neurons Have 2 processes Multipolar Neurons Have more than 2 processes and constitute the majority of neurons Interneurons Have no or short axons and function to integrate neuronal activity Nucleus A group of cell bodies in the CNS Ganglion A group of cell bodies in the PNS Tract
Ependymal Cells Glial cells that line the cerebral ventricles and produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) Tightly packed cells that protect the brain and regulate the passage of substances Schwann Cells Supportive cells in the PNS that produce myelin Satellite Cells Supportive cells in the PNS that surround the cell bodies of neurons Golgi Staining A technique to visualize the silhouette of neurons
Nissl Stain / Cresyl Violet A stain that stains all neural cell bodies Electron Microscopy A technique for detailed visualization of neuronal structure Neuroanatomical Tracing Techniques Techniques to trace the path of axons to their targets Anterograde Tracing Tracing from soma to terminal buttons Retrograde Tracing Tracing from terminal buttons to soma
Ventral Toward the front Anterior Toward the head Posterior Toward the tail Rostral/Cephalic Toward the front of the head Caudal Toward the back of the head Proximal
Closer to the point of attachment Distal Farther from the point of attachment Ipsilateral On the same side Contralateral On the opposite side Anatomical Planes Imaginary planes used to divide the body Sagittal Plane Divides the body into left and right
