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BIOL 2070 FINAL EXAM 2024/2025 COMPLETE QUESTION
AND ANSWER GRADED A+ (VERIFIED EXAM)
How does vesicular transport work?
- Transport Vesicles Carry Soluble Proteins and Membrane Between Compartments
- Vesicle Budding Is Driven by the Assembly of a Protein Coat
- Vesicle Docking Depends on Tethers and SNAREs Exocytosis a vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, releasing its content to the cell's surroundings Endocytosis extracellular materials are captured by vesicles that bud inward from the plasma membrane and are carried into the cell. clathrin a protein that plays a major role in the formation of coated vesicles
secretion Secretory proteins are released from the cell by exocytosis
- There are two pathways
- The Constitutive exocytosis pathway provides a steady stream of proteins and lipids to the plasma membrane and cell exterior—no signal sequence is required
- The Regulated exocytosis pathway operates in secretory cells— large amounts of required substance is stored in vesicles and released in response to an extracellular signal Pinocytosis A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes. receptor-mediated endocytosis The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances.
Vibrio cholerae infects the intestines of humans causing cholera
- produces a toxin, enters the cells and modifies a subunit of the G protein, locking it into an active state
what are the different intracellular compartments
- Membrane enclosed organelles
- Protein sorting
- Vesicular transport
- Secretory pathways
- Endocytic pathways Phagocytosis A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells epinephrine
- heart, increase in heart rate and force of contraction
- skeletal muscle, glycogen breakdown
glucagon fat, fat breakdown adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) adrenal gland, cortisol secretion vasopressin liver, glycogen breakdown acetylcholine
- pancreas, secretion of amylase
- skeletal muscle, contraction thrombin blood platelets, aggregation
endothelial cells cells lining the blood vessels
- form a single cell layer that lines all blood vessels and regulates exchanges between the bloodstream and the surrounding tissues GTPase an enzyme that hydrolyses the GTP to GDP
- cell adhesion, membrane trafficking, and apoptosis RAS drives the growth, proliferation, and migration of cells. In normal cells RAS receives signals and obeys those signals to rapidly switch between the active (GTP) form and the inactive (GDP form) states Apoptosis programmed cell death Lymphocyte homing
the process of T cells leaving the bloodstream and entering specific tissue sites what are the four eukaryotic cell phases?
- mitosis (nuclear duplication) and cytokinesis (cell splits in two) is the M phase
- interphase is the period between one M phase and the next where DNA is replicated
- the S phase (synthesis phase) where DNA is replicated, is flanked by 2 G phases (G1 and G2) what are the three phases of interphase? G1, S, G
- DNA replication is confirmed in S phase what happens during M phase? the nucleus divides in a process called mitosis, then the cytoplasm divides, in a process called cytokinesis
M phase
- M-Cdk drives entry into mitosis
- cohesins and condensins help configure duplicated chromosomes for separation
- different cytoskeletal assemblies carry out mitosis and cytokinesis
- M phase occurs in stages
- M-Cdk drives entry into mitosis prophase prometaphase interphase metaphase
anaphase telophase cytokinesis extracellular matrix and connective tissues
- plant cells have tough external walls
- cellulose microfibrils give the plant cell wall its tensile strength
- animal connective tissues consist largely of extracellular matrix
- collagen provides tensile strength in animal connective tissues
- cells organize the collagen they secrete
- integrins couple the matrix outside a cell to the cytoskeleton inside it
- gels of polysaccharides and proteins fill spaces and resist compression incorrect collagen assembly can cause the skin to be hyperextensible
Stem Cells and Tissue Renewal
- tissues are organized mixtures of many cell types
- different tissues are renewed at different rates
- stem cells and proliferating precursor cells generate a continuous supply of terminally differentiated cells
- specific signals maintain stem-cell populations
- can be used to repair lost or damaged tissues
- induced pluripotent stem cells provide a convenient source of human ES-like cells
- mouse and human pluripotent stem cells can form organoids in culture drosophilia development
- Determining polarity 2. generating segments (in transition from egg to larvae) 3. determining the identity of each segment (in transition from larvae to adult) --> involves rapid cell division, cell migration, cell membrane growth, and cellular differentiation induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS)
- Differentiated cell can be taken from adult human tissue, grown in culture and reprogrammed to ES state called IPS
- No more need for embryos (some ethical concerns)
- The process will permanently convert fibroblasts into Embryonic Like Stem cells (ES)
- Possible treatment for human diseases like muscular dystrophy, Parkinson's (nerve cell death) , type 1 diabetes , heart muscle repair and even entire organ replacement. cancer
- Cancer Cells Proliferate Excessively and Migrate Inappropriately
- Epidemiological Studies Identify Preventable Causes of Cancer
- Cancers Develop by an Accumulation of Somatic Mutations
- Cancer Cells Evolve, Acquiring an Increasing Competitive Advantage
- Two Main Classes of Genes Are Critical for Cancer: Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes
- Cancer-critical Mutations Cluster in a Few Fundamental Pathways
- Colorectal Cancer Illustrates How Loss of a Tumor Suppressor Gene Can Lead to Cancer
- An Understanding of Cancer Cell Biology Opens the Way to New Treatments
- Cancer Cells Proliferate Excessively and Migrate Inappropriately
