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BIOL 235 final Exam with correct answers
Erythrocytes contain the enzyme - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ carbonic anhydrase carbonic anhydrase catalyzes - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ the conversion of metabolically produced C)2 and water into carbonic acid fixed phagocytic macrophages - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ remove most old erythrocytes from circulation Location of fixed phagocytic macrophages - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ narrow capillaries of the spleen Undifferentiated cells called pluripotent stem cells reside - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ in the bone marrow pluripotent stem cells - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ continuously divide and develop myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells to give rise to each of the types of blood cells emigration or diapedesis - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ The process of leukocytes squeezing through the capillary endothelium to exit the vasculature agglutinins - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ genetically-determined glycoprotein and glycolipid antigens found on the surface of an erythrocyte ESV - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ volume of blood in the ventricle after ejection has been completed Increase in ESV when - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ stroke volume is decreased
Three cations with important effect on heart function - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ K+, Ca2+, and Na+ Increased blood levels of NA+ - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ blocks Ca2+ inflow and decreases force of contraction Excess in K+ - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ blocks generation of action potentials pharynx - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ serves as a sound resonating chamber, contains tonsils, directs air flow inferiorly larynx - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ passes air form pharynx into windpipe, site of sound production paranasal sinuses - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ resonates sound, not part of the pharynx fauces - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ opening from oral cavity into pharynx tertiary bronchus - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ carries air to a segment of a lung terminal bronchiole - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ carries air directly into a respiratory bronchiole pleural membranes - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ surround the lungs surfactant - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ reduces surface tension at sites of gas exchange alveoli - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ actual sites of gas exchange
Blood is - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ a connective tissue that consists of blood plasma (liquid) plus formed elements (red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets) Whole blood - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ blood plasma and formed elements Blood plasma - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ proteins, water, other solutes Blood plasma proteins - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ albumins (54%), globulins (36%), fibrinogens (7%) Formed elements - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets Blood cell production - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ hemopoesis, mainly occurs in red bone marrow after birth Reticulocyte - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ from proerythrocyte, ejects nucleus Average lifespan of an erythrocyte - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ 120 days Rate of RBC formation by red blood cells - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ equals the rate of RBC destruction by macrophages Emigration or diapedesis is - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ the process by which phagocytic cells leave blood vessels WBCs use to destroy pathogens - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ lysozyme, defensins, and certain anions Neutrophils - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ are usually the first and most numerous responders to an infection
Macrophages - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ react more slowly to an infection than neutrophils do Pluripotent stem cells are derived from - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ mesenchyme Megakaryoblasts - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ platelet precursor cells, develop into megakaryocytes Platelet - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ fragment of megakaryocyte that is enclosed by a piece of plasma membrane Platelet plug - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ can stop blood loss completely if the hole in a blood vessel is small enough Hemostasis - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ sequence of responses that stops bleeding, vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, blood clotting Blood clot - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ gel that contains formed elements of the blood entangled in fibrin threads In blood clotting - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ coagulation factors are activated in sequence, resulting in a cascade of reactions that includes positive feedback cycles Extrinsic pathway of blood clotting - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ fewer steps, thromboplastic leaks into the blood from cells outside (extrinsic to) blood vessels and initiates the formation of prothrombinase Intrinsic pathway of blood clotting - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ more complex, occurs more slowly, activators are in direct contact with blood or contained within (intrinsic to) the blood. Outside tissue damage is not needed.
Visceral layer of the serous pericardium - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ one of the layers of the heart wall Epicardium - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ Outer layer of the heart, two tissue layers visceral layer of the serous pericardium, underneath this is adipose tissue that houses the major coronary and cardiac vessels of the heart Mycardium - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ middle muscular layer, responsible for the pumping action of the heart, 95% of the heart wall, cardiac muscle fibers are organized in bundles that swirl diagonally around the heart, striated like skeletal muscle but involuntary like smooth muscle Endocardium - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ innermost heart layer, thin layer of endothelium over a thin layer of connective tissue, provides smooth lining for the chambers of the heart and covers the valves, continuous with the endothelial lining of the large blood vessels attached to the heart Sulci - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ grooves that contain blood vessels and fat that mark the external boundaries between the various chambers Blood flows into the right atrium through - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, coronary sinus Blood flows into the left atrium through - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ four pulmonary veins Fibrous skeleton of the heart - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ fibrous rings support the four valves of the heart and are fused to one another AV valves - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ between an atrium and a ventricle Bicuspid valve - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ left atrium and left ventricle
Tricuspid valve - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ right atrium and right ventricle Heart valves - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ prevent the backflow of blood The left side of the heart - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation to all tissue of the body except the air sacs of the lungs The right side of the heart - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ pumps deoxygenated blood into pulmonary circulation to the air sacs The left and right coronary arteries deliver - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ blood to the heart Coronary veins - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ drain blood from the heart into the coronary sinus Cardiac muscle fibers connect to neighboring fibers by - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ intercalated discs which contain desmosomes and gap junctions Autorhythmic fibers - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ pacemaker, form the cardiac conduction system Cardiac conduction systems propagate - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His), right and left bundle branches, Purkinje fibers Authorhythmic fibers pace - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ 100 times a minute, natural pacemaker Conduction system - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ ensures that the chambers of the heart contract in a coordinated manner
Stroke volume - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ the volume of blood ejected by the ventricle during each contraction Basic structure of a blood vessel - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ tunica interna, tunica media, tunica externa Tunica interna - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ innermost layer endothelium, facilitate efficient blood flow by reducing surface friction Tunica media - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ muscular and connective tissue layer that displays the greatest variation among the different vessel types Tunica media vasoconstriction - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ sympathetic stimulation causing contraction Tunica media vasodilation - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ sympathetic stimulation decreases or presence of certain chemicals (NO, lactic acid, H+) Tunica externa - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ mostly of collagen and elastic fibers, supplies the vessel wall with nerves and self-vessels, helps anchor the vessels to surrounding tissue In capillaries - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ nutrients, gases, and wastes are exchanged between the blood and interstitial fluid Capillaries are - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ microscopic blood vessels that connect arterioles and venules 5 types of blood vessels - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins Arteries - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ carry blood from the heart to tissues
Veins - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ carry blood from tissues to the heart Pressure reservoir - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ mechanical energy momentarily stored in stretch elastic fibers of an artery Recoil of elastic arteries - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ keeps blood flowing during ventricular relaxation Capillary exchange - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ most important method of capillary exchange is simple diffusion Three methods of capillary exchange - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ simple diffusion, transcytosis, bulk flow (filtration and reabsorption) Bulk flow - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ passive process in which large amounts of ions, molecules, or particles in a fluid move together in the same direction, high pressure to low pressure Blood hydrostatic pressure - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ pushes fluid out of capillaries (filtration) Blood colloid osmotic pressure - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ pushes fluid into capillaries (reabsorption) Starling's law of the capillaries - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ near equilibrium, the volume of fluid and solutes reabsorbed normally is almost as large as the volume filtered Valves in veins - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ allow blood to flow in one direction only - towards the heart
Aortic reflex - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ baroreceptors in the wall of the ascending aorta which regulates systemic blood pressure Baroreceptors are - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ pressure sensitive neurons that monitor stretching When blood pressure decreases - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ heart rate increases As the cuff deflates - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ first sound usually systolic pressure, the sounds suddenly become faint at the diastolic blood pressure Shock - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ failure of the CV system to deliver enough O2 and nutrients to meet cellular metabolic needs Four types of shock - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ hypovolemic shock, cardiogenic shock, vascular shock, obstructive shock Homeostatic responses to shock - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, secretion of antidiuretic hormone, activation of the sympathetic division of the ANS, release of local vasodilators Homeostatic mechanisms can compensate for an acute blood loss - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ of as much as 10% of total blood volume All veins of systemic circulation drain into - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, coronary sinus All systemic arteries branch - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ from the aorta The arch of the aorta - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ ends at the level of the intervertebral disc between the fourth and fifth thoracic vertebrae
The thoracic aorta is the - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ continuation of the ascending aorta The abdominal aorta is the - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ continuation of the thoracic aorta Internal iliac arteries - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ carry most of the blood supply to the pelvic viscera and wall Blood draining from the head - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ passes into the internal jugular, external jugular, and vertebral veins Lymphatic tissue - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ specialized form of reticular connective tissue that contains a large number of lymphocytes Functions of the lymphatic system - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ drains excess interstitial fluid, transport of dietary lipids, carries out immune response Lymphatic system consists of - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic tissues, and red bone marrow Lymphatic pathway - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, through lymph nodes, unite to form lymph trunks, to thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct Lacteals - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ specialized lymphatic capillaries that carry dietary lipids into lymphatic vessels and into the blood Lymphatic capillaries are found - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ throughout the body except in avascular tissues, the central nervous system, portions of the spleen, and bone marrow
Spleen function in relation to blood cells - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ removal by macrophages of worn out/defective blood cells and platelets, storage of platelets, production of blood cells during fetal life Lymphatic tissues are derived from - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ mesoderm First line of defense - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ skin and mucus membrane Second line of defense - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ internal defenses - antimicrobial substances Antimicrobial substances - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ interfereons, diffuse to uninfected neighboring cells, complement system, iron-binding proteins, antimicrobial proteins (AMPs) Major types of phagocytes are - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ neutrophils and macrophages Three stages of inflammation - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ vasodilation and increased permeability, phagocyte emigration, tissue repair Early stages of inflammation macrophages - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ neutrophils first then replace by monocytes Two types of adaptive immunity - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ Cell mediated immunity and antibody mediated immunity Most antigens have several epitopes that induce the production of different antibodies or activate different T cells - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ Epitope - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ small part of a large antigen molecule that triggers an immune response
Hapten - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ smaller substance that has reactivity but lacks immunogenicity Fragments of exogenous antigens are processed and then presented with MHC-II molecules on the surface of an antigen presenting cell - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ Fragments of endogenous antigens are processed then presented with MHC-I proteins on the surface of an infected body cell - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ Cytokine - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ small protein hormones that stimulate or inhibit many normal cell functions, such as cell growth and differentiation Cell mediated immunity begins with - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ activation of a small number of T cells by a specific antigen, once a T cells has been activated, it undergoes clonal selection Once a helper T cell is activated - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ it forms a clone of active helper T cells and memory helper T cells Once a cytotoxic T Cell is activated - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ it forms a clone of active cytotoxic T cells and memory cytotoxic T cells Cytotoxic T cells release: granzymes that trigger apoptosis and perforin that triggers cytolysis of infected target cells - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ Plasma cells - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ secrete antibodies Complement system - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ defensive system made up of over 30 proteins produced by the liver and found circulating in blood plasma whiting tissues throughout the body. Complement system destroys microbes by - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ causing phagocytosis, cytolysis, and inflammation
Helper T cells are activated by antigens associated with - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ MHC class II Maximal activation of cytotoxic T cells - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ required presentation of antigen associated with both MHC-I and MHC-II molecules Effector cell of a B cell clone - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ plasma cells, secrete specific antibodies Immunoglobulins (Tgs) - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ antibodies belong to a group of glycoproteins called globulins An antibody combines only - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ with the epitope on the antigen that triggered its production H chains - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ two chains in antibody L chains - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ two identical chains in antibodies Disulfide bond - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ holds each light chain to a heavy chain Variable (V) regions - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ constitute the antigen-binding site Constant C region - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ nearly the same in all antibodies of the same class Main cytokines - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ interleukin 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, tumor necrosis factor, interferons, macrophage migration inhibiting factor
The upper respiratory system includes - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, and associated structures Lower respiratory system includes - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and the lungs Functions of the respiratory system - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ provides for gas exchange: intake of O2 for delivery to body cells and removal of CO2 produced by body cells, helps regulate blood pH, contains receptors for sense of smell, filters inspired air, produces vocal sounds, excretes small amounts of water and heat As air passes through the nose - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ it is warmed, filtered, moistened, and olfaction occurs External nose - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ has a cartilaginous framework and bony framework Pharynx - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ can be divided into three anatomical regions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx Nasopharynx - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ lies posterior to the nasal cavity and extends to the soft palate Through internal nares - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ nasopharynx receives air from the nasal cavity along with packages of dust-laden mucus Oropharynx - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ intermediate portion of the pharynx, lies posterior to the oral cavity and extends from the soft palate inferiorly to the level of the hyoid bone Fauces - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ opening from the moth into the oropharynx Oropharynx function - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** ✔✔ both respiratory and digestive
