Download Biology for engineers and more Schemes and Mind Maps Biology in PDF only on Docsity!
HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS & BIO DESIGNS
MODULE 3
Stages involved in bio-design
1. Identifying a need : Identify the problem or need that can be addressed using
biological systems.
2. Research: Explore potential solution (study of natural biological systems,
developing new materials)
3. Design: is created for product
4. Test and iterate : design is tested & evaluated to ensure that it meet the desire
need.
5. Manufacture and deploy: after finalising design & testing, it can be
manufactured and deployed for use. BRAIN AS CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT) SYSTEM
- Both CPU and brain use electrical signals to send messages.
- The brain uses chemicals to transmit information; the computer uses electricity.
- Even though electrical signals travel at high speeds in the nervous system, they travel evenfaster through the wires in a computer.
- Both transmit information.
- Both operate through networks of interconnected components.
- Neurons are the building blocks of brain which communicate through synaptic transmission, which releases chemical messengers called neurotransmitter. Architecture of brain Cerebrum
- Largest and complex part of the brain.
- Responsible for higher cognitive functions such as consciousness, perception, thinking & memory.
Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance, lies beneath cerebrum. Brainstem:
- Located at the base of the brain
- responsible for regulating breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. Limbic system:
- Network of structures located in the center of the brain
- includes hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus
- regulatesemotions, motivation and memory. Basal ganglia :
- are a group of structure located deep within the brain
- involve in coordinating movement and muscle control. Nervous system
• The nervous system has two main parts:
• The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord
responsible for processing sensory information & response to stimuli.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of nerves that branch off from
the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body. Central nervous system:
• Spinal cord serves as the pathway for signals to travel between brain and rest of
the body.
• Responsible for automatic stimuli
• CNS is responsible for the sensory perception (capacity of individual to detect,
experience, or sense the stimuli in their environment), movement & cognition (thinking, attention, language, learning, memory)
• Dysfunction of CNS leads to neurological disorders (Alzheimer’s,
Parkinson’s, multiple sclerosis etc)
Electro encephalogram [EEG]:
- It is a non- invasive medical procedure that measures the electrical activity of the brain.
- During an EEG, electrodes are pasted onto your scalp.
- These are small metal disks with thin wires. They detect tiny electrical charges that result from the activity of your brain cells. EEG test is used to diagnose and monitor the following conditions:
• Epilepsy and seizures
• Presence of internal bleeding and tumors of the brain
• Damage caused by a traumatic brain injury
• Alzheimer’s disease and dementia
• Infections, such as encephalitis
• Sleep disorders, Stroke
• Inflammation of the brain
Electroencephalogram Robotic arm prosthetics:
• Robotic arm is a type of mechanical arm that is designed to replicate the
movement and functionality of a human arm.
• Robotic arms are also used in industrial and manufacturing settings.
Development of robotic prosthetic arm:
• Conceptualization: Defining the requirements & goals of the prosthetic arm,
taking into account the needs & preference. This can involve consultation with clinicians, researchers and end users.
• Design & engineering: Involves detailed CAD models, selecting materials &
components & developing software and control systems.
• Prototyping: This involves 3D printing machines & fabrication techniques.
• Testing & validation: Involves laboratory testing, field testing with end
users, & clinical trials to assist safety and efficacy.
• Manufacturing & commercialization: Involves scaling up
production, obtaining regulatory approvals, marketing the device to potential users and healthcare providers. Components of robotic arm
- Base: The base of the robotic arm gives a stable platform for the arm to move. It may be fixed or mounted on a mobile platform.
- Joints: Robotic arms have several joints that allow them to move in a similar way to a human arm which may be powered by motors, pneumatics or hydraulics.
- End effector: It is a tool attached to the end of the arm which include grippers, sensors or other specialized tools.
- Control system: includes software and hardware through which the arm is programmed and controlled. This may include sensors, cameras and other inputs. Parkinson’s disease
• Parkinson's disease is a progressive disorder that affects the nervous
system and the parts of the body controlled by the nerves.
• Many of the symptoms are due to loss of the neurons that produces
dopamine (neurotransmitter and happy hormone).
• When dopamine levels decrease, it causes atypical brain activity, leading to
impaired movement and other symptoms of Parkinson's disease.
• Parkinson's disease can't be cured, but medications can help control the
symptoms.
• In advanced cases, surgery may be advised.
light entering the eye
- The pupil : The round opening in the center of the iris. The pupil changes size to let light into the eye. It gets smaller in bright light and larger as the amount of light decreases.
- The retina : The retina functions like the camera film or sensor, capturing the light and converting it into electrical signals that are sent to the brain. It is the layer at the very back of your eyeball.
- Optic nerve : The optic nerve functions like the cable connecting the camera to a computer, transmitting the electrical impulses from the retina to the brain. Similarities and differences between human eye and camera
- Both the eye and the camera have convex lenses.
- The eye lens expands or contracts while the camera lens moves forward or backward to focus.
- The camera lens produces upside down real images while the eye lens produces only upright real images.
Eye photoreceptors – Architecture:
• There are two types of photoreceptors: RODS AND CONES
Rod cells Cone cells
• Rod cells are highly sensitive to light
and function in night vision (dim light)
• Cone cells can detect a wide spectrum
of light photons and are responsible for colour vision. Rods are distributed throughout the retina but there are none at the fovea and blind spot. Rod density is greater in the peripheral retina than in the central retina. The central fovea is populated exclusively by cones. High amplification Less amplification Contains one type of pigment (Rhodopsin) Contains three types of pigment Rods cannot distinguish colors Cones are responsible for colour vision There are 3 types of cone- short wavelength cone (S-cone), Medium wavelength cone (M-cone) and long wavelength cone (L-cone).
Types of cataracts
- The nuclear sclerosis is when the nucleus, i.e. the center of the eye, begins to get cloudy, yellow, and hardens.
- A cortical cataract forms in the shell layer of the lens known as the cortex and gradually extends its “spokes” from the outside of the lens to the center.
- Posterior subcapsular cataracts (PSC) are opacities located in the most posterior cortical layer, directly under the lens capsule.
- Congenital cataract: A cataract right from the birth. Lens Materials:
• The lens material used during cataract surgery are clear plastic materials
(silicone, acrylic) or optical glass.
• Monofocal lens : vision at fixed distance typically for distance vision
• Multifocal lens : For both far & near vision
• Accommodating lens : Work by changing shape & shifting focus.
• CR-39, crown glass, flint glass, polycarbonate glass are different lens material
used in the manufacture of lenses. Bionic eye
• Medical device designed to restore vision to individual with certain type of
vision loss caused by retinitis pigmentosa or age-related macular degeneration. Working
• Device works by electrically stimulating the remaining healthy cells of retina,
bypassing the damaged & non-functional cells.
• It consists of external camera, computer processor & electrode.
• The image is captured with a small camera and & the information is transferred
to a processing unit that is attached to the eye.
• Processing unit then converts visual information in to electrical signals & send
them to an electrode array that is surgically implanted onto the retina.
• The electrodes stimulate the healthy cells in the retina, which then sends
signals to the brain to create the perception of vision.
• Restored vision is not perfect.
BIONIC EYE
HEART AS A PUMP SYSTEM
• It is responsible for circulating blood throughout the body, delivering oxygen &
nutrients to the tissues & removing waste materials.
• The heart's pumping action is controlled by a complex network of
electrical and chemical signals, which generate the rhythm of the heartbeat. Architecture:
• The heart is a complex pump system that circulates blood throughout the body.
Common heart related issues
- Arrhythmias : Abnormalities in the heart's rhythm or rate can be detected using an ECG.
- Heart disease : Changes in the heart's electrical activity can indicate the presence of heart disease, such as coronary artery disease or heart attacks.
- Heart attack : An ECG can help diagnose a heart attack by detecting changes in the heart's electrical activity that indicate a lack of blood flow to the heart.
- Angina is a type of chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart. Angina is a symptom of coronary artery disease.
- Atherosclerosis is the buildup of fats, cholesterol and other substances in and on the artery walls. This buildup is called plaque.
- Heart failure: Condition in which heart is unable to supply oxygenated blood throughout the body.
- Coronary artery disease : If the blood supplying arteries become narrow or blocked due to plaque leads to coronary artery diseases such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol.
- Valve disorders: When the valves in the heart do not work properly Reasons for blockage:
• High cholesterol levels: Excessive amounts of low-density lipoprotein
(LDL) cholesterol in the blood can lead to the formation of plaque in the blood vessels, which can narrow or block them.
• High blood pressure: Over time, high blood pressure can cause damage to the
blood vessels, leading to the formation of plaque and blockages.
• Smoking: Smoking can damage the inner walls of blood vessels and
promote the buildup of plaque, leading to blockages.
• Diabetes: People with uncontrolled diabetes are at a higher risk of developing
blockages in their blood vessels, due to damaged blood vessels from high levels of glucose.
• Age : As people age, the blood vessels can become stiff and less flexible,
increasing the risk of blockages
• Genetics: Some people may be predisposed to developing blockages in their
blood vessels due to genetic factors.
• Poor diet: A diet high in saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol can
increase the risk of developing blockages in the blood vessels.
Stents:
• Stents are small, metal mesh devices that are used to treat blockages in blood
vessels.
• They are typically used in procedures such as angioplasty, where a balloon
catheter is used to open up a blocked blood vessel and a stent is placed to keep it open.
• The design of stents can vary depending on the specific medical condition it is
used to treat.
• Some are made out of fabric. These are called stent grafts and are often used
for larger arteries.
• Others are made of a material with drug-eluting stent that dissolves, and your
body absorbs it over time. Design of stents
• Shape: Stents can be designed in a variety of shapes, including cylindrical, helical
and spiraled, to match the shape of the blood vessel and provide adequate support.
• Material: Stents can be made of different materials, including stainless steel,
cobalt chromium, and Nitinol (a type of metal that is flexible and can return to its original shape after being expanded).
• The selection of material depends on the factors such as biocompatibility,
durability, ability to deliver drug & other therapeutic agents.
• Coating: Stents can be coated with different materials or with drugs to prevent
the formation of blood clots and reduce the risk of re narrowing or promote healing.
• Delivery system : Delivered via catheter- based system.
• Expansion mechanism : Stents can be designed to expand in different ways,
such as by balloon inflation or self-expansion, depending on the type of stent and the specific medical condition it is used to treat. Pace maker
• A pacemaker is a small device that is surgically implanted in the chest that
generate electrical impulses to regulate the heartbeat.
• It is used to treat heart rhythm disorders, such as bradycardia (a slow
heartbeat) or tachycardia (fast heartbeat), by delivering electrical impulses.
arrest.
- ICDs (implantable cardioverter defibrillators): are placed through surgery in the chest or stomach area, where the device can check for arrhythmias. The ICD sends a shock to restore a normal heart rhythm.
- WCDs (wearable cardioverter defibrillators): have sensors that attach to the skin. They are connected by wires to a unit that checks your heart’s rhythm and delivers shocks when needed. The device has a belt attached to a vest that is worn under your clothes. Design
• Power source: The power source, typically a battery, provides energy to
deliver the electric shock to the heart.
• Electrode pads or paddle: The electrodes are placed on the chest and
deliver the electric shock to the heart.
• Circuitry or control unit: The circuitry in the defibrillator controls the delivery
of the electric shock, including the timing, strength and duration of the shock.
• Display: A display on the defibrillator provides information about the heart
rhythm, battery life, and other relevant information. LUNGS AS PURIFICATION SYSTEM
- The lung purifies air by removing harmful substances and adding oxygen to the bloodstream.
- Filtration : The nose and mouth serve as a first line of defense against harmful substances in the air, such as dust, dirt, and bacteria. The tiny hairs in the nose, called cilia, and the mucus produced by the respiratory system trap these substances and prevent them from entering the lungs.
- Moisturization : The air is also humidified as it passes over the moist lining of the respiratory tract, which helps to keep the airways moist and prevent them from drying out.
- Gas Exchange : Once the air reaches the alveoli, the gas exchange process occurs, where oxygen diffuses across the thin alveolar and capillary walls into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from the bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled. This process ensures that the bloodstream is supplied with fresh, oxygen-rich air, while waste carbon dioxide is removed from the body. Respiratory system Architecture of lungs
- Air enters the body through the mouth or nose (nasal cavity) and quickly moves to the pharynx. From there, it passes through the larynx (voice box) and enters the trachea. Within the lungs, the trachea branches into a left and right bronchus. These further divide into smaller and smaller branches called bronchioles. The smallest bronchioles end in tiny air sacs. These are called alveoli.
- Trachea : The trachea is the main airway that leads from the larynx (voice box) to the lungs. It is lined with cilia and mucus-secreting glands that help to filter out harmful substances and trap them in the mucus. The trachea is a strong tube that contains rings of cartilage that prevent it from collapsing.
- Bronchi: The trachea branches into two main bronchi, one for each lung. The bronchi are larger airways that continue to branch into smaller airways called bronchioles.
- Bronchioles : The bronchioles are smaller airways that eventually lead to the alveoli. They are surrounded by tiny air sacs called alveoli, which are the sites of gas exchange.
- Alveoli : The alveoli are tiny air sacs that are lined with a network of capillaries. This
mouthpiece, a flow sensor, and a volume sensor.
• The patient is asked to exhale as much air as possible into the spirometer after a
deep breath, and the spirometer measures the volume and flow rate of the exhaled air.
• The volume of air exhaled is displayed on a graph called a flow-volume
loop, which provides information about the lung function. Spirometry measures two main components:
• Forced vital capacity (FVC). FVC is the highest amount of air you can
breathe out after taking a deep breath in.
• Forced expiratory volume (FEV1). FEV1 is the amount of air you breathe
out in one second.
• The FEV1/FVC ratio parameter is calculated and is converted to percentage
which tells us about the lung functionality. Abnormal Lung Physiology
• Abnormal lung physiology refers to any deviation from the normal
functioning of the respiratory system.
• This can be caused by a variety of factors including diseases, injuries or genetic
conditions. Some common examples of abnormal lung physiology include
• Asthma: A chronic inflammatory disease that causes the airways to narrow, making
it difficult to breathe.
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): A progressive lung disease that
makes it hard to breathe and can include conditions such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
• Pulmonary fibrosis: A disease in which scar tissue builds up in the lungs, making it
difficult to breathe and reducing lung function.
• Pneumonia: An infection in the lungs that can cause inflammation and fluid buildup
in the air sacs.
• Pulmonary embolism: A blockage in one of the pulmonary arteries, usually by a
blood clot, which can cause lung damage and reduce oxygen flow to the body.
• Lung cancer: A type of cancer that originates in the lung and can impair lung
function by interfering with normal air flow and oxygen exchange. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD):
• A progressive lung disease that makes it hard to breathe and can include
conditions such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
• In COPD, the airways and small air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs become
damaged or blocked, leading to difficulty in exhaling air.
• This results in a decrease in lung function, leading to shortness of breath,
wheezing, and coughing.
• The primary cause of COPD is long-term exposure to irritants such as tobacco
smoke, air pollution and dust, a history of frequent lung infections, a family history of lung disease, and exposure to second-hand smoke.
• There is no cure for COPD
• Treatment options include use of medications such as bronchodilators and
steroids, oxygen therapy, and lung rehabilitation. In severe cases, surgery may also be an option. In addition, quitting smoking and avoiding exposure to irritants is crucial in managing COPD. Ventilator
• They are commonly used in the treatment of acute respiratory failure, which
can occur as a result of a variety of conditions such as pneumonia, severe asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
• Ventilators work by delivering pressurized air or oxygen into the lungs
through a breathing tube or mask.
• The pressure can be adjusted to match the patient's needs and to help
maintain adequate oxygen levels in the blood.
• While ventilators can be lifesaving for individuals with acute respiratory
failure, they also come with potential risks and complications.
