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TEAS EXAM REVIEW
SCIENCE PORTION
Human Anatomy & Physiology- 68%
Life & Physical Sciences-17%
Scientific Reasoning- 15%
Lesson 1- Human Anatomy and Physiology
1.1 Components of a Cell
Function Organelle Description
Protein Synthesis ribosomes Free floating in cytoplasm or associated with ER. Composed of ribosomal RNA, protein, & translate messenger RNA into cellular proteins. Protein Translation rough ER Site of translation for membrane-bound of secreted proteins. Site of protein folding & modification. Protein modification & modification golgi apparatus Sort/package protein. Cells “post office”. Proteins undergo posttranslational modification. Ribosome assembly nucleolus Transcribes ribosomal RNA & combines ribosomal proteins to create ribosomal subunits. Waste breakdown lysosome Break down waste, defense against pathogens & apoptosis. Energy production mitochondria Powerhouse. Produce ATP through aerobic respiration. Double membrane, small circular genome, own ribosomes. Cell organization centrosome Organization. Centrioles assemble the mitotic spindle during cell division. Detoxification & lipid synthesis smooth ER Produces lipids, phospholipids, steroids. Detoxifies metabolic by-products as well as alcohol/drugs. Storage site for calcium. locomotion (^) cilia Enable movement. Increase cell surface area to maximize absorption.
1.2 Tissues Tissue type Description Epithelial Covering skin. Produce secretions. Dependent on diffusion from capillaries for food and oxygen. Connective Found throughout body. Bone, cartilage, adipose (fat), blood vessel. Muscular Provide movement. Skeletal, cardiac, smooth. Nervous Structure for brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Send electrical impulses through body. 1.3 Anatomical Planes and Terminology Plane Description Coronal Runs vertically. Front/back Sagittal Runs vertically. Left/right Transverse Runs horizontal. Top/bottom. Also called axial Term Definition Example Superior Top half of transverse Head Inferior Bottom half of transverse Foot Anterior/ventral Front of coronal Clavicle Posterior/dorsal Back of coronal Shoulder blade Medial Midline of sagittal Thumb Lateral Away from midline of sagittal Pinky Proximal Toward origin Proximal tubule Bowman’s capsule Distal Away from origin Distal tubule Bowman’s capsule
Spongy bone : located at the ends on bones o Contains bone marrow o Site of RBC and lymphocyte production Compact bone : supports body o Stores calcium o Denser than spongy bone Osteocytes : bone cells; regulate osteoblasts and osteoclasts o Osteoblasts : cells that build bone; mononucleate o Osteoclasts : removes and absorbs bone tissue during growth and healing; multinucleate o “ Blasts build, Clasts cleave” Osteon : Cylindrical structure that comprise, synthesize, and compact bone o Composed of calcium and phosphate rich hydroxyapatite embedded in collagen matrix Haversian Canal : Provide nutrients to bone cells Volkmann Canal : Connect Harversian canals Periosteum: fibrous sheath that covers bone and contains nerve and blood vessels Collagen: Primary structural protein of connective tissue Canaliculi: Small channel or duct in ossified bone Cartilage: tough, elastic connective tissue found in parts of the body (ear) Lamellae : layers of bone, tissues, or cell walls Lining Cells : Flattened bone cells that come from osteoblasts Bone Diseases: o Osteoporosis : causes brittle, fragile bones from lack of calcium o Osteogenesis imperfecta : Brittle Bone disease; affect the collagen o Osteoarthritis : degenerative joint disease with loss of cartilage o Rheumatoid Arthritis : progressive disease that causes joint inflammation and pain
Lesson 3- The Neuromuscular/Nervous System Consists of : Brain, spinal cord, nerves Function : controls voluntary and involuntary movement. Allow body to sense and respond to environmental changes 2 parts: o Central Nervous System (CNS) : Process info in brain o Brain: control center occupies cranium o Brain and spinal cord o Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) : all nerves outside of CNS o Sensory NS : afferent; sends messages to CNS o Motor NS : efferent ; sends messages to muscles Somatic NS : carries info to CNS from senses, and from CNS to skeletal muscles Autonomic NS : involuntary; controls actions involving cardiac and smooth muscle Sympathetic NS : arouses body; FIGHT or FLIGHT Parasympathetic NS : Calms body; REST and DIGEST Nerve: Long bundles of axons that transmit signals from CNS o Electrical impulse from dendrite to axon terminal o Transmitted from cell to cell via neurotransmitters secreted into the synapse from the axon terminal o 12 sets of cranial nerves o Optic nerve : sight o Vagus nerve : control digestion and heart rate o Spinal nerve : sensory and motor signals from spinal cord to specific area of body o Sciatic nerve : largest spinal nerve; back to leg Soma : neuron cell body Dendrites : branches Axon : “bark” Polarization : process of generating action potential and can be triggered when dendrite receives impulse from sensory receptor. Synapse: the structure that allows neurons to pass signals to other neurons, muscles or glands Neurotransmitter: A chemical substance that is released from the axon terminal by the arrival of a nerve impulse. o Diffuses across the synapse o Causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure at the dendrite of the other cell o Acetylcholine : NT; causes muscle to contract o Dopamine : NT; precursor to epinephrine
Muscles 3 types: o Skeletal : has striated tubular fibers; attached to skeleton and voluntary o Sarcomeres : myofibril containing myosin and actin (protein) Myosin - THICK; fibrous protein; forms the contractile filaments of muscle cells Actin - THIN- protein involved in motion o Largest skeletal muscle: gluteus maximus o Smallest skeletal muscle: stapedius- in mid ear o Smooth : involuntary muscle; not striated o Walls of GI tract and blood vessels o Cardiac : involuntary muscle; striated o Heart Ischemic : muscle tissue has been deprived of oxygen for too long causing tissue to become damaged or die as result of inadequate blood flow aka HEART ATTACK Multiple sclerosis : demyelinating disorder that results in uncoordinated movement. Lesson 4- Cardiovascular/ Circulatory System Consists of: heart, blood vessels, blood Function: move blood through the body to enable nutrient delivery and remove waste from tissues. 4.1 Anatomy of Cardiovascular System Heart: Key organ of the system and has four chambers; pumps blood through body Atria: right and left; receive blood returning to the heart from other areas of the body Ventricles: right and left; collect and expel blood from the heart Atrioventricular valves: atria and ventricles separated by these
Tricuspid valve: separates right atrium and right ventricle Mitral (bicuspid): separates the left atrium and left ventricle Artery: Blood vessel that carries blood AWAY from heart Aorta: large artery branches off the heart to the rest of the body o Coronary Artery o Carotid Artery o Subclavian Artery o Common Iliac Artery o Renal Artery Vein: Blood vessel that carries blood TO the heart Vena Cava: All veins empty here prior to entering the heart o Jugular Vein o Subclavian Vein o Hepatic Portal Vein o Common Iliac vein o Renal Vein Capillaries: Smallest blood vessel that connects arterioles to venules only consists of a single layer of epithelial tissue. Arteriole : Small artery Venule : Small vein Blood : transports oxygen and nutrients to the tissues Removes waste products Carries oxygen to and carbon dioxide from tissues 4 main components: o RBC : erythrocytes; carry hemoglobin and O o WBC : leukocytes; immune defense o Platelets : clotting cells o Plasma : liquid portion of blood Blood Pressure : Fluid pressure generated by cardiac cycle (systole/diastole) Systole: Contraction of ventricles (heart expels blood) Diastole: Relaxation of ventricles (heart refills with blood)
Hypertension: high BP. Systole over 140 mmHg; Diastole over 90 mmHg Lesson 5: Respiratory System Function: Facilitates gas exchange between the body and external environment; takes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. Oxygen diffuses in the body through the lungs disseminated throughout body by circulatory system to be used for cell metabolism Carbon dioxide waste product returned to lungs by circulatory system and lungs release into the environment Lungs: 5 lobes ( 2 left, 3 right). Main structure of respiratory system Alveoli : Tiny air sacs; site of O2 and CO2 exchange (diffusion) Bronchi : The main passageways directly attached to the lungs Bronchiole : Small passages that connect bronchi to alveoli Trachea : Windpipe, connects larynx to lungs Larynx : Voice box Pharynx : Located behind mouth, also part of GI system Diaphragm : Dome shaped sheet of muscle and tendon that serves as the main muscle of respiration and plays a vital role in the breathing process Pleura : Membrane around lungs, inside chest cavity Perfusion : Passage of fluid to an organ or tissue Surfactant : A fluid secreted by alveoli; reduces surface tension- prevent lung collapse Tidal Volume : The amount of air breathed in a normal inhalation and exhalation The overall pathway of pharynx – larynx – trachea – bronchi – alveoli can be remembered by “ p lease l eave t he b reathing a lone” Ventilation : Movement of air in and out of body via inhalation and exhalation Inhalation : diaphragm contracts downward; lungs fill with air Exhalation : diaphragm relaxes upward; air pushes out Hyperventilation : More CO2 than body can produce (breathing out more than in) Hypoventilation : Breathing at an abnormally slow rate
Disease/Illness related to Respiratory System Surfactant insufficiency: mutation in surfactant proteins and can lead to difficulty breathing. It can cause respiratory distress in newborns. Asthma: environmental triggers as well as genetic predisposition. It can lead to inflammation and narrow airway that makes it difficult to breath. Emphysema : breakdown of alveoli (air sac in lungs). It can cause shortness of breath. Cystic Fibrosis: mutation of protein expressed in respiratory tract, leading to abnormally thick mucus and can lead to lung infections. Pathogens that infect lungs Flu - coronavirus; cough, sneeze, sunny nose, fatigue Tuberculosis- mycobacterium; cough up blood, weight loss, lead to scarring of lungs. Walking pneumonia - infection by mycoplasma bacteria; cough and headaches
Gastro Secretions (listed above) Saliva- lubricates mouth, break down carbs and starch Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)- sterilizes harmful bacteria Pepsin (Ogen)- digests protein by breaking amino acids Gastric Lipase - digests lipids and fats Mucus - goblet cells, protects stomach walls from HCl Bile - helps neutralize acidic chyme, aids fat digestion Pancreatic bicarbonate - neutralizes chyme Pancreatic Lipase - digests lipid and fats Trypsin (proteases) - digest protein in SI Gastro Hormones Hormone Stimulus for Release Released From Target Function Gastrin Arrival of protein in stomach Stomach/small intestine Parietal cells of the stomach Stimulates gastric acid and mucosal secretions Ghrelin Empty stomach Stomach Hypothalamus Induces hunger Leptin Fat in bloodstream Adipose (fat) tissue Hypothalamus Reduces hunger Secretin Arrival of chyme in the duodenum Small intestine Pancreas, stomach, liver Increases bile secretion; inhibits gastric emptying; release bicarbonate Insulin Increase blood glucose levels Pancreas Liver Stimulates uptake of glucose Glucagon Low blood glucose levels Pancreas Liver Initiates breakdown of glycogen Somatostatin Acid in stomach Stomach Secretory stomach cells Inhibits gastric secretion and slows digestion Cholecystokinin (CCK) Fats an amino acids Small intestine Gallbladder, pancreas, stomach Stimulates gallbladder to release bile; stimulates pancreas to release pancreatic enzymes; inhibits gastric emptying and acid secretion
Lesson 7- Genitourinary/Urinary System Function: responsible for removing toxins, waste, and water from the body as well as maintaining the blood pressure and pH. Consists of : kidneys, bladder, ureter, urethra Kidney: filters blood to remove waste products and maintain fluid balance Receive blood from renal artery (extension of aorta) Filter blood Reabsorb need materials Excrete waste and water via urine Renal Cortex: Outer Layer o Nephron - functional unit of kidney; blood filtration and reabsorption occur o Renal Arteries - what kidneys receive blood from; carry blood directly from the heart via the abdominal aorta o Glomerulus - capillary in nephron o Bowman’s Capsule - condenses the glomerulus Renal Medulla: Middle Layer o Proximal Convoluted Tubule : water, glucose, ions, and other organic molecules are reabsorbed back into the blood stream. o Distal Convoluted Tubule : urea and drugs are removed from blood. pH in blood is adjusted with H+ ions. Renal Pelvis: Inner Layer o Materials arrive as urine from distal convoluted tubule. Afferent arteriole: The blood vessel that enters the glomerulus Efferent arteriole: The blood vessel that exits the glomerulus Renal Problems Glucose in pee is a sign of diabetes Dark urine is a sign of dehydration Blood in urine is a sign of hematuria, UTI or kidney infection Hormone Trigger Function Result Renin Decreased BP Activates angiotensin; increase ADH & aldosterone Increased BP Angiotensin Activated by renin Constricts arteriolar blood vessels; increase reabsorption of Na+ and Cl-; stimulates ADH secretion Increased BP Antidiuretic hormone (ADH); vasopressin Decreased blood volume; increased osmolality of blood Prevent fluid loss to maintain blood volume by reabsorbing water from renal tubules Increased BV Aldosterone Decreased BP; Increases reabsorption of Na+ from renal tubules, Increased
Lesson 9- Reproductive System Males Produce, maintain, and transfer sperm and semen into the female reproductive tract Produce and secrete male hormones External Organs: penis, scrotum, testes o Scrotum: protects testes; keeps optimal temp for spermatogenesis o Testes: Male gonads; produce sperm and testosterone Internal Organs: Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Ejaculatory Ducts, Urethra, Seminal Vesicles, and Bulbourethral glands o Epididymis: stores sperm as it matures o Vas Deferens: Mature sperm more from epididymis to Vas Deferens to the ejaculatory duct o Seminal Vesicles: secrete alkaline fluids with protein and mucus into ejaculatory duct o Prostate Gland: Secretes a milky white fluid with proteins and enzymes as part of semen o Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) Gland: Secrete a fluid to neutralize the acidity in the urethra Hormones o FSH: Stimulates spermatogenesis o LH: stimulates testosterone production o Testosterone: male sex characteristics
Females Produce ova (oocytes/egg cells) Transfer ova to fallopian tubes for fertilization Receive sperm from male Provide a protective, nourishing environment for developing embryo External Organs : Labia Majora, Labia Minora, Bartholin's Glands, Clitoris o Labia : close and protect vagina o Bartholin’s gland : secrete lubricating fluid o Clitoris : contains erectile tissue and nerve endings for sensual pleasure Internal Organs : Ovaries, Fallopian Tubes, Uterus, Vagina o Ovaries : female gonads; produce ova, and secrete estrogen and progesterone o Fallopian tubes : carry mature egg toward uterus; site of fertilization o Uterus : fertilized egg implants on uterine wall; protects and nourishes developing embryo until birth o Vagina : muscular tube from cervix to outside of body; receives semen, is site of intercourse, and birth canal. Hormones o Estrogen: Stimulates egg maturation; female sex characteristics o Progesterone: Prepares uterus to receive fertilized egg o FSH: Stimulates oogenesis o LH: Stimulates estrogen production o Oxytocin: Stimulates contraction of uterus and mammary gland cells o Prolactin: Stimulates milk production
Other Immune Cells Helper T-Cells: Activate B-Cells to make Antibodies and other chemicals Suppressor T-Cells: Stop other T-Cells when the battle is over Memory T-Cells: Remain in blood on alert incase invader attacks again Killer/Cytotoxic T-Cells: Destroy Cells infected with a pathogen, virus, or tumor Leukocytes: WBC- produced in Red Marrow Monocyte o Macrophage o Dendritic Cell: present antigens to T-Cell Granulocyte o Neutrophil: short living phagocyte; responds quick to invaders o Basophil: alerts body invasion o Eosinophil: large, long living phagocyte; defend against multicellular invaders T Lymphocyte B Lymphocyte Natural Killer Cell Antibody Mediated Response : Response is to an antigen Cellular Mediated Response : Response is to an already infected cell Antigen : foreign particle that stimulates the immune system Typically a protein on the surface of bacteria, virus, or fungi Antibody : a blood protein that counteracts a specific antigen Steps of Immune System
- Macrophage engulfs antigen and presents fragments of antigen on its surface
- A Helper T Cell joins the Macrophage
- Killer/Cytotoxic T Cells and B Cells are activated
- Killer/Cytotoxic T Cells search and destroy cells presenting the same antigen
- B Cells differentiate into Plasma Cells and Memory Cells Innate Immune System Born with it Non-specific response EX) Skin, hair, mucus, earwax, secretions, normal flora, antimicrobials, inflammation, interferons, complement, NK Lymphocytes, phagocytes Adaptive Immune System Responds to specific antigens Vaccinations or previous encounters o Reaction: Cytotoxic T Cells kill pathogen o Prevention: B Cells produce Antibodies
Activated by Antigen and Helper T Cells Helper T Cells activated by Antigen Presenting Cells (APC) Naturally Acquired Active Immunity : Exposure to pathogen without immunization Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity : Occurs during pregnancy and during breast feeding Antibodies are passed from mother to child Provides protection from infancy to childhood Artificially Acquired Active Immunity : Build immunity via Vaccination Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity : Immunization given during an outbreak or emergency Quick, short lived protection Antibodies come from another person or animal Lesson 11- Integumentary System
