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Chapter 1
Political Socialization:
A Conceptual and Theoretical Construction
1.1 Introduction
“The development of the concept of Political Socialization was necessitated by the complex happenings in several parts of the world. The national explosion in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia resulting in the birth of new states; the loss of dominance of the nations of the Atlantic community and the consequent diffusion of international power and influence challenged the fundamental structure of the government after the Second World War. The newly born states of Asia and Africa were confronted with the problem of nation building. They experienced difficulties in the process. It was realized that the cultural aspects of political development should also to be taken into account for nation building and political culture of a nation is the result of process of political socialization. This made the study of political socialization important and significant for all people and all societies.”^1 “Political socialization gained importance in the middle of the last century. Herbert Hyman coined the word ‘Political Socialization’ in his writings in 1959. This led to systematic studies in the field of political socialization.”^2 The twenty first century is characterized by radical changes due to the advent of globalization and emergence of new models of development. The exogenous forces of Globalization and Modernization have resulted into widespread transformation in the socio- economic, cultural and political system across nations
of the world. The political, social and economic systems in India are also undergoing major transformation and significant changes can be seen in the normative and existential order of the society. The complex nature of these changes requires learning society and participant democracy so that inclusive development can take place. Democracy is defined as the government of the people, by the people and for the people. In this system the governing power is derived from the people. The people elect their representatives who take decisions on their behalf. “Orderliness is a primary requisite of society. There can be no game of social interaction if the players do not observe the rules. The individuals must learn every rule; there must be curbs on their desires and appetites. Thus, to become a useful citizen and to enjoy the fruits of social life the individuals must have knowledge about the norms and values of society. The social order can be maintained only by giving freedom of expression to the various groups and interests. There must be a social consensus for meaningful action.”^3 This can be achieved when there is articulation of interests and members of the society work towards achieving common goals for progress of the country. The orientation towards citizenship begins with the process of political socialization which is a particular type of political learning whereby people develop the attitudes, values, beliefs, opinion and behavior that are conducive to becoming good citizens of their country. It is the process by which young people acquire knowledge, dispositions and social skills that allow them to participate effectively in civic affairs. It helps in understandingthe interaction and interdependence of social and political learning in shaping the political environment of the country which is essential for
which continue) throughout normal human life, in so far as new roles must be learned.”^4
Hyman defined political socialization as the “individual learning of social patterns corresponding to his social positions as mediated through various agencies of society.”^5
Easton defined political socialization as “those developmental processes through which persons acquire political orientations and patterns of behaviour.”^6
According to Eisenstadt “political socialization is ‘a communication with and learning from other human beings with whom an individual, gradually enters into some sort of generalized relationship”^7
According to Austin and Nelson “a process by which individuals obtain relevant knowledge, skills and dispositions that are enable them to function competently in the social political culture” 8
Ball defines “Political socialization as establishment and development of attitudes and beliefs about the political system”^9
A synthesis of above definitions and views reveals that political socialization is the process which deals with formation of attitudes and public opinion towards the political system, preparation of citizens to actively participate in the political decision making and contributing to development of political culture of a nation. Thus political socialization is a life-long process which socializes a social unit towards the political life of a country thereby establishing an inter-relationship between civil society 10 and polity.“Thus Political Socialization is fundamentally
a process of learning from experiences through various agencies. It refers not only to the experience and behavior of individuals but also refers to the group to which the individual belongs.” 11 It aims to achieve the goal of political stabilization through individuals and groups.“ Political Socialization not only gives us insight into the pattern of political culture and sub-culture in society, but also locates for us in the socialization process of the society the point where the particular qualities and elements are being sustained or modified”^12. Political Socialization helps individuals in the development of awareness of the political world and appreciation, judgments, and understanding of political events. When an individual becomes politically socialized, he /she acquires political orientations and patterns of behavior which provide him/ her with an opportunity to learn the basic orientations necessary for the maintenance of the democratic system. An individual acquires three types of basic orientations- knowledge, values and attitudes related to functioning of polity during the process of political socialization. “It is the most important link between the social and the political system.”^13 “It includes all formal, informal, deliberate, unplanned learning at every stage of life.Political socialization helps in learning of political attitudes and social preferences which is crucial for stable government and democracy”.^14
From the sociological point of view political socialization is an extremely important process by which inter-relationship is established between political system and society and through which individuals become involved in the political process. “It is a long term process through which political culture is transmitted in a society. It is how the individuals learn political ideas and orientations and
individual, under the influence of family, teachers or other some agencies learns explicitly about the patterns and functions of the government and ideology of political parties. The experiences with government institutions, civics course in schools giving information about democracy, rights to citizens, fundamental duties and directive principles of state policy also result in direct political socialization.
(ii) Latent or Indirect political socialization- The latent political socialization begins with non-political objects and orientations and culminates into political orientation. Latent political socialization involves many of the most fundamental characteristics of the general culture which have great effect on the political sphere. It occurs through certain channels. They are the general social conditions and attitudes leading to political action or inaction; interpersonal communication of information, values and attitudes; and acquisition of skills and techniques in non-political activities that may end in to political skills when an individual become an adult. Participation in college and university politics strengthens the ground for future role in politics. Thus both forms of socialization act through a variety of channels. Imitation, political experience, anticipatory behaviour and political education refer to channels of manifest socialization. The act of imitation occurs at a tender age wherein children imitate their parents, relatives, teachers, neighbours, etc. It does not have a strong political conviction but has the capacity to build a strong political faith ”19. Political experiences
leave an enduring impression on the minds of the people and can bring about a change in the attitude of the people towards politics. Apart from these two types of main political socialization “there are other three categories of types of political socialization, viz particularistic and universalistic, affective and instrumental, and specific and diffuse political socialization. Particularistic socialization is that process in which individual is taught only one role. He/she does not learn anything about other roles that means, socializing an individual into particularistic values only. In universalistic socialization cosmopolitan outlook is developed. An individual therefore learns several roles. In affective socialization there is stress on emotional values like pride in one’s political system, loyalty to one‘s country, respect for ruler, etc. In instrumental socialization the emphasis is on pragmatic bargaining and calculating strategies which means that political system should be supported not for all times, but as long as one drives benefits from it. In specific socialization, specific attitudes and values are imparted by specific political structures. In diffused socialization there is learning about the vague things such as religion, politics, economy, society, etc. It is found in societies in which there is no differentiation between the state and society.”^20 Thus various types of political socialization can be attributed to the political environment of a country. It is a life-long process and takes place by the means of various primary and secondary agencies of socialization.
political perceptions in three ways. Firstly the parents transmit attitude which they consider valuable for the child, some attitudes reflect community consensus like respect for symbols, feeling of loyalty etc., some attitudes might be transmitted which represent difference of opinion from the policies of government. This kind of attitude acquisition corresponds to the acquisition model. Secondly, parent’s affiliation with a political party is the most significant aspect of family socialization which corresponds with the identification model.”^22
The family constitutes a credible source of information and the children develop initial political attitudes about respect for the country, identification with the ideologies of a particular political party and perception of functioning of the government .The children have a natural tendency to follow their parents therefore they develop a perception of either good or bad political parties from families. Families provide an early experience by participation in decision making, can increase the sense of political competence, provide skills for interaction, and thus enhance the probability of active participation in the political system when an individual becomes an adult. The significance of family in political socialization can be attributed to several reasons. The family occupies a crucial place in the life of the child with reference to emotional and financial support and ascribed status. Moreover, the parents are the representatives of ideal patterns of behavior for children. Hence the children follow the political beliefs and attitudes of the family. “With the increase of the age the
importance of the parents diminishes and the child learns a lot from outside the family. But the influence of the parents is never completely wiped off from the mind. Thirdly, members of a family usually live in the same environment. The family is influenced by the same neighbours’, by the same friends, and the same economic forces. The family members read the same newspapers, attend to the same radio and TV programmer, listen to the same preacher and otherlocal opinion leaders, gather the same gossip and hear the same stories. Thus all the members of the family naturally share similar political ideas, values and behavior due to residing in the same environment.”^23 Hence family is regarded as an important agent of political socialization.
(ii) Educational Institutions
Education 24 performs the role of political socialization through the contents of courses in schools and colleges, the process of forming and conducting student associations and through various types of intellectual, cultural and sporting activities organized with the help of students, celebration of regional and national festivals and through the informal relations between students and teachers and among students themselves. Teaching of subjects like history, civics, social sciences, languages, text books etc., also play an important role. Other subjects are also indirectly utilized to this end. A proper performance of this function of political socialization becomes supportive to the structures of the political system and provides stability and continuity to it, whereas its non-performance raises the possibility of
equal age, equal functions and equal economic status. This does not mean that peer groups have no leaders, but these leaders do not enjoy authority and characteristics of the parents in the family. Just as in the socialization of the child influence of the family is maximum; similarly the adolescent is influenced by the peer group and friend circle. He/ Sheattain political experience due to socialization in the peer group. The family and the peer groups however, do not conflict butcooperate. The main reason of the importance of peer groups in political socialization is the fact that interactions of members of upper group are spontaneous and not formal. The members naturally influence each other. They have most intimate and emotional relationships leading to socialization as it is in the case of family. Lane reports that “the more politically conscious are a person’s friends and associates and follow group members the more likely he is too politically conscious active.”^26 The peer group has profound influence in all aspects of life. The discussions with peers raise the political consciousness of the individuals and helps in political socialization.
(iv) Secondary groups
Secondary groups also work as an agents of political socialization. Their impact varies with the nature of societies. The more highly developed and complex society is, the greater will be the number of secondary groups and more important role they will play in the process of socialization. As the complexity and development increases in society so does the value of secondary groups. There are three types of secondary groups which
socialize politically in different ways. Firstly, there are secondary groups with a distinctly political character. Political parties and political youth groups fall in this category. They are established clearly for the purpose of disseminating political values, mobilizing political action and recruiting the political leaders. The second type represents those groups which are instituted for non-political purposes, but which are found to carry on political education and mobilization along with their other activities for example labour union and students union. These groups aim at collective bargain in their particular field. But even these groups are led by the leaders following particular political ideologies. Some of them are even active members of a particular political party. They impart political education to their followers and take part in active politics from time to time. The third type of secondary groups does not have any political character, nor do they ever try to impart political education to their members. But mere participation in their routine affairs gives their members opportunities to develop orientations that have political relevance.
(v) Mass Media
The contemporary societies are experiencing a convergence of varied forms of mass communication. The new as well as traditional forms of mass media play a crucial role in building and sustaining democracies around the world. As the younger generation grows in the postmodern world they are exposed to a wide range of socializing agents which reproduce or modify the cultural practices and ideologies of the youth. Apart from newspapers
the individuals. The information first originates at the government level where by the officials or political leaders and the mass media give their own interpretation and provide analysis to the people. Thus mass media not only acts as an agent of political socialization but also as an instrument used by various agents of political socialization”^29. When a major political event occurs in the nation the media is the only source which provides information quickly.
According to Gonalez “mass media- newspapers, magazines, comic books, movies and especially television presented a very different form of socialization than any other, because they offer no opportunity for interaction. Televisions are an influence on children from a very young age and effect their cognitive and social development. Television is the medium with the greatest socialization effect surpassing all the other media by far its influence on the young child”.^30 In contemporary society apart from television other forms of media are also becoming popular. People can choose to follow politics through a face book group that consists largely of close friends and associate with similar view points. In our contemporary society, television, newspapers and magazines act as agents of the government for general awareness of the social and political constructs to reach common people. Furthermore, the use of computer network has proved to be one of the most effective ways of spreading any form of news, and knowledge in a very short span of time to a huge number of people in India and abroad.
According to Hooghe“the political attitudes and behavior of young people differ significantly from those of earlier generation. There is decline of participation and trust among young people. He argues that the society will have to find ways through education and mass media to adapt to more critical and participant citizens”.^31 Thus apart from other agencies of political socialization mass media is a powerful agent of political socialization.
(vi) Government
Right from their adolescent age, children start acquiring political views and opinions from their family and surroundings, cultural and social influences, and in a way they do participate, although in a non-potential way, to the future beliefs orientation and of their participation in the political views at a later date when they become mature and from their then contemporary faith and belief to actively participating in the socio-political dissemination of the government views and in the shaping of political socialization. The government also regulates the media what we see and hear. “An individual’s continuous experiences with government through his / her direct contact with governmental functions and governmental personnel and direct knowledge of what the government stands and works for are likely either to reinforce his/ her ideas and attitudes acquired through the early political socialization process or to alter them quite substantially. In some cases government directly intervenes to carry on a process of political indoctrination.Political parties disseminate political knowledge and values,
these differences.”^33 The political parties and other interest groups help in building awareness about various political and social issues and assist in the process of political socialization. Thus political socialization is a continuous process and it requires different agencies of socialization. These agencies have differential impact during various stages of life. These agencies can also bring modification and transformation in political understanding.
1.5 Political Socialization and Pressure Groups
“Political socialization is part of the continuous process of social order which is responsible for teaching certain political behavior’s to the new members of a society in order to make them think in keeping with the changing political system they are living in. A pressure group^34 is an organized group that seeks to influence government policy or protect or advance a particular cause or interest. Groups may promote specific issues and raise their voice for the political agenda or they may have more general political and ideological objectives in mind when they campaign.”^35 Harold Lass well and Abraham Kaplan remark, ‘A group is an organized aggregate and an interest group is an interest aggregate’. A group is recognized as some legitimate and established section of society.^36 ‘An interest group is a voluntary association of citizens who attempt to influence public policy”^37 David Truman has described interest group as ‘a shared attitude that makes certain claims upon or through institutions of government’.^38 According to The Blackwell
Dictionary of Sociology ‘an interest (or pressure) group is an organization whose purpose is to influence the distribution and use of political power in a society”.^39 An interest group 40 is an association of people having mutual concern about a wide array of economic, social, cultural, political, religious or any other issues. Such associations may have specific and narrowly defined goals which may be moderate or local or national and international in scope. These groups are vital part of the political process. The political process is seen to result from a large number of competing interest groups. Interest groups are occasionally referred to as pressure groups, implying that they attempt to force their will on a resistant public. When an interest group seeks governmental aid in achieving its own ends and succeeds in influencing governmental policy to its advantage, then it becomes a pressure group. Thus pressure groups may be any group attempting to bring about any change in the working of any formal organization, state, government or any other social or economic organization. They are associations to influence mass public policy. Thus achievement of political goals can be facilitated by organization of masses into pressure groups. Orientation of individuals into political system and acquisition of political knowledge through the process of political socialization helps in the formation of pressure groups. The pressure groups arise because they either want to preserve or change their status. Groups play a very direct role in the political shaping of the country. In the event of a dissent with the political view-points, people organize interest groups, pressure groups to influence the government. Various cultural, ethnic, religious, racial and other groups work as pressure groups against a government’s decision to bring
