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IVC Bio 15 Ch2 Chemical Properties Study Guide Key Terms: Nucleus: a specialized structure occurring in most cells (except bacteria and blue-green algae) and separated from the rest of the cell by a double layer, the nuclear membrane. Protons: a stable subatomic particle occurring in all atomic nuclei, with a positive electric charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron, but of opposite sign. Electrons: The electron is a subatomic particle that is found in all atoms. Unlike protons, neutrons, or the nuclei of atoms, electrons are elementary particles. This means they are not made of even smaller particles. Compound: A compound is a substance made of two or more elements that are chemically joined. The elements react with each other to form chemical bonds that are difficult to break. anabolism: the synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together with the storage of energy; constructive metabolism. Anabolism is the building-up aspect of metabolism, whereas catabolism is the breaking-down aspect. Anabolism is usually synonymous with biosynthesis. Catabolism: the breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler ones, together with the release of energy; destructive metabolism. Acid: A chemical that gives off hydrogen ions in water and forms salts by combining with certain metals. base: A base is a substance that can accept protons or donate a pair of valence electrons. In the context of biology, bases often refer to substances that can accept hydrogen ions and have a pH value greater than 7. Ion: an "ion" refers to an atom or molecule that carries an electrical charge, either positive (cation) or negative (anion) Salt: sodium chloride (NaCl), a crucial compound that plays a vital role in maintaining proper fluid balance within organisms, supporting nerve and muscle function, and acting as an essential electrolyte due to its ability to dissociate into sodium and chloride ions when dissolved in water pH: "pH" stands for "potential of hydrogen" and refers to a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is, based on the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) present, with a scale ranging from 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly basic), where 7 is considered neutral. buffers: a solution that can resist significant changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added, essentially maintaining a stable internal environment within an organism, like the blood, by balancing hydrogen ions (H+) concentrations; it typically consists of a weak acid and its conjugate base, or a weak base and its conjugate acid. functional groups: a specific group of atoms within a molecule that gives the molecule its characteristic chemical properties and reactivity, allowing it to participate in specific biological reactions; examples of important functional groups include hydroxyl (-OH), carbonyl (C=O), carboxyl (-COOH), amino (-NH2), phosphate (-PO4), and sulfhydryl (-SH), which are found in various biological molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. macromolecules: large, complex molecules essential for life, primarily including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which are all built from smaller subunits called monomers and perform a variety of functions within a cell; essentially, they are the building blocks of living organisms. polymer: monomers: small molecules or atoms that bond together to form more complex structures called polymers. The word monomer comes from the words "mono" meaning one and "-mer" meaning part. Examples of monomers:
Amino acids The monomers of proteins. Amino acids are connected by covalent bonds called peptide bonds. Monosaccharides The monomers of carbohydrates. Monosaccharides are simple sugars, like glucose, fructose, and galactose. Nucleotides The monomers of nucleic acids. Nucleotides are made up of a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen base. Glycerol and fatty acids The monomers of lipids. Lipids include fats, steroids, and waxes. denaturation: the process where a protein or nucleic acid molecule loses its natural shape and structure, usually due to environmental changes like extreme temperature, pH fluctuations, or exposure to certain chemicals, resulting in a loss of its biological function organic chemicals: molecules that contain carbon atoms, typically bonded with hydrogen, oxygen, and sometimes other elements, and are found in living organisms; essentially, the building blocks of life, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which are all considered organic compounds. inorganic chemicals: substances that do not contain both carbon and hydrogen, meaning they are typically derived from minerals and not produced by living organisms; common examples include water (H2O), salts like sodium chloride (NaCl), acids like hydrochloric acid (HCl), and most metal elements like calcium (Ca). glyosidic bond: peptide: triglyceride: polypeptide: monosaccharide: the simplest form of sugar, considered a single unit carbohydrate, and is the building block for more complex carbohydrates like disaccharides and polysaccharides; common examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. polysaccharide: a complex carbohydrate molecule made up of long chains of simple sugar units (monosaccharides) linked together by glycosidic bonds, serving primarily as energy storage or structural components within organisms; common examples include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. disaccharide: a type of sugar molecule formed by the combination of two simpler sugar units, called monosaccharides, linked together by a glycosidic bond; essentially, it's a "double sugar" made up of two monosaccharides joined together, with common examples including sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose. phospholipid: a type of lipid molecule that serves as the primary building block of cell membranes, forming a bilayer structure due to its unique amphipathic nature - a hydrophilic phosphate head group and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails, allowing it to interact with both water and non-polar substances, thus acting as a barrier to regulate what enters and exits the cell; essentially forming the cell membrane's structural foundation and playing a key role in maintaining its permeability and function. saturated: refers to a molecule, particularly a fatty acid, where all carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain are bonded with single bonds, meaning they are holding the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms, essentially "saturated" with hydrogen; this is in contrast to unsaturated fatty acids which have double bonds between carbon atoms, allowing for fewer hydrogen atoms to be attached. unsaturated: a fatty acid molecule that contains one or more double bonds between carbon atoms in its hydrocarbon chain, meaning it is not fully saturated with hydrogen atoms and is typically liquid at room temperature, unlike saturated fats which have only single bonds and are solid at room temperature; unsaturated fats are often considered healthier due to their ability to lower cholesterol levels.
where a partially positive hydrogen atom is attracted to a partially negative atom on a different molecule, typically involving oxygen or nitrogen. are most commonly found in the four major macromolecules: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids
Compare and contrast acids, bases & salts. acids are substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) in water, typically tasting sour and turning blue litmus paper red, while bases release hydroxide ions (OH-) in water, tasting bitter and turning red litmus paper blue; a salt is a neutral compound formed when an acid and a base react, essentially neutralizing each other, and does not significantly affect litmus paper when dissolved in water.
Explain what it means for a molecule to be polar. A polar molecule is a molecule where the electric charge is unevenly distributed, meaning one end of the molecule has a slightly positive charge while the other end has a slightly negative charge, creating distinct "poles" similar to a magnet, with opposite ends attracting each other; this occurs due to unequal sharing of electrons between atoms within the molecule, often because of differences in electronegativity.
Distinguish organic and inorganic compounds. organic compounds are substances that contain carbon atoms and are primarily derived from living organisms, while inorganic compounds lack carbon atoms and are typically found in non-living matter, like minerals; essentially, organic compounds are carbon-based and produced by life, while inorganic compounds are not carbon-based and are not produced by life.
Be able to identify, label and give the characteristics of the different functional groups. Functional Group Structure Properties Hydroxyl Polar Methyl Nonpolar Carbonyl Polar
Functional Group Structure Properties Carboxyl Charged (forms R-COO[^-]) at the pH of most biological systems. Since carboxyl groups can release H[^+] into solution, they are considered acidic. Amino Charged (forms R-NH[_3^+]) at the pH of most biological systems. Since amino groups can remove H[^+] from solution, they are considered basic. Phosphate Charged (forms R-OPO[_3^2][^-]) at the pH of most biological systems. Since phosphate groups can release H[^+] into solution, they are considered acidic. Sulfhydryl Polar
Be able to identify the functional groups in an amino acid. An amino acid contains two primary functional groups: an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH); both of these groups are attached to a central carbon atom, with the unique "R" side chain differentiating each amino acid type. Amino group (-NH2): This group is considered basic due to its nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons, allowing it to accept a proton. Carboxyl group (-COOH): This group is acidic due to the presence of a carbonyl group (C=O) attached to a hydroxyl group (OH), allowing it to donate a proton.
Give an example of a monomer and polymer of a carbohydrate, how they are joined together or broken apart and a couple examples of their functions.
