Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation, and Mitigation: A Summary for Policymakers, Lecture notes of Sustainable Development

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Chapter

Climate Change 2014

Synthesis Report

Summary for Policymakers

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Introduction

This Synthesis Report is based on the reports of the three Working Groups of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), including relevant Special Reports. It provides an integrated view of climate change as the final part of the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5).

This summary follows the structure of the longer report which addresses the following topics: Observed changes and their causes; Future climate change, risks and impacts; Future pathways for adaptation, mitigation and sustainable development; Adaptation and mitigation.

In the Synthesis Report, the certainty in key assessment findings is communicated as in the Working Group Reports and Special Reports. It is based on the author teams’ evaluations of underlying scientific understanding and is expressed as a qualitative level of confidence (from very low to very high) and, when possible, probabilistically with a quantified likelihood (from exceptionally unlikely to virtually certain)^1. Where appropriate, findings are also formulated as statements of fact with- out using uncertainty qualifiers.

This report includes information relevant to Article 2 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

SPM 1. Observed Changes and their Causes

Human influence on the climate system is clear, and recent anthropogenic emissions of green-

house gases are the highest in history. Recent climate changes have had widespread impacts

on human and natural systems. {1}

SPM 1.1 Observed changes in the climate system

Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed

changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have

warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, and sea level has risen. {1.1}

Each of the last three decades has been successively warmer at the Earth’s surface than any preceding decade since 1850. The period from 1983 to 2012 was likely the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years in the Northern Hemisphere, where such assessment is possible (medium confidence). The globally averaged combined land and ocean surface temperature data as calculated by a linear trend show a warming of 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C 2 over the period 1880 to 2012, when multiple independently produced datasets exist (Figure SPM.1a). {1.1.1, Figure 1.1}

In addition to robust multi-decadal warming, the globally averaged surface temperature exhibits substantial decadal and interannual variability (Figure SPM.1a). Due to this natural variability, trends based on short records are very sensitive to the beginning and end dates and do not in general reflect long-term climate trends. As one example, the rate of warming over

(^1) Each finding is grounded in an evaluation of underlying evidence and agreement. In many cases, a synthesis of evidence and agreement supports an assignment of confidence. The summary terms for evidence are: limited, medium or robust. For agreement, they are low, medium or high. A level of confidence is expressed using five qualifiers: very low, low, medium, high and very high, and typeset in italics, e.g., medium confidence. The follow- ing terms have been used to indicate the assessed likelihood of an outcome or a result: virtually certain 99–100% probability, very likely 90–100%, likely 66–100%, about as likely as not 33–66%, unlikely 0–33%, very unlikely 0–10%, exceptionally unlikely 0–1%. Additional terms (extremely likely 95–100%, more likely than not >50–100%, more unlikely than likely 0–<50%, extremely unlikely 0–5%) may also be used when appropriate. Assessed likelihood is typeset in italics, e.g., very likely. See for more details: Mastrandrea, M.D., C.B. Field, T.F. Stocker, O. Edenhofer, K.L. Ebi, D.J. Frame, H. Held, E. Kriegler, K.J. Mach, P.R. Matschoss, G.-K. Plattner, G.W. Yohe and F.W. Zwiers, 2010: Guidance Note for Lead Authors of the IPCC Fifth Assess- ment Report on Consistent Treatment of Uncertainties, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Geneva, Switzerland, 4 pp. (^2) Ranges in square brackets or following ‘±’ are expected to have a 90% likelihood of including the value that is being estimated, unless otherwise stated.

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the past 15 years (1998–2012; 0.05 [–0.05 to 0.15] °C per decade), which begins with a strong El Niño, is smaller than the rate calculated since 1951 (1951–2012; 0.12 [0.08 to 0.14] °C per decade). {1.1.1, Box 1.1}

Ocean warming dominates the increase in energy stored in the climate system, accounting for more than 90% of the energy accumulated between 1971 and 2010 (high confidence), with only about 1% stored in the atmosphere. On a global scale, the ocean warming is largest near the surface, and the upper 75 m warmed by 0.11 [0.09 to 0.13] °C per decade over the period 1971 to 2010. It is virtually certain that the upper ocean (0−700 m) warmed from 1971 to 2010, and it likely warmed between the 1870s and 1971. {1.1.2, Figure 1.2}

Averaged over the mid-latitude land areas of the Northern Hemisphere, precipitation has increased since 1901 (medium confidence before and high confidence after 1951). For other latitudes, area-averaged long-term positive or negative trends have low confidence. Observations of changes in ocean surface salinity also provide indirect evidence for changes in the global water cycle over the ocean (medium confidence). It is very likely that regions of high salinity, where evaporation dom- inates, have become more saline, while regions of low salinity, where precipitation dominates, have become fresher since the 1950s. {1.1.1, 1.1.2}

Since the beginning of the industrial era, oceanic uptake of CO 2 has resulted in acidification of the ocean; the pH of ocean surface water has decreased by 0.1 (high confidence), corresponding to a 26% increase in acidity, measured as hydrogen ion concentration. {1.1.2}

Over the period 1992 to 2011, the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have been losing mass (high confidence), likely at a larger rate over 2002 to 2011. Glaciers have continued to shrink almost worldwide (high confidence). Northern Hemisphere spring snow cover has continued to decrease in extent (high confidence). There is high confidence that permafrost tempera- tures have increased in most regions since the early 1980s in response to increased surface temperature and changing snow cover. {1.1.3}

The annual mean Arctic sea-ice extent decreased over the period 1979 to 2012, with a rate that was very likely in the range 3.5 to 4.1% per decade. Arctic sea-ice extent has decreased in every season and in every successive decade since 1979, with the most rapid decrease in decadal mean extent in summer (high confidence). It is very likely that the annual mean Antarctic sea-ice extent increased in the range of 1.2 to 1.8% per decade between 1979 and 2012. However, there is high confidence that there are strong regional differences in Antarctica, with extent increasing in some regions and decreasing in others. {1.1.3, Figure 1.1}

Over the period 1901 to 2010, global mean sea level rose by 0.19 [0.17 to 0.21] m (Figure SPM.1b). The rate of sea level rise since the mid-19th century has been larger than the mean rate during the previous two millennia (high confidence). {1.1.4, Figure 1.1}

SPM 1.2 Causes of climate change

Anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions since the pre-industrial era have driven large increases in the atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) (Figure SPM.1c). Between 1750 and 2011, cumulative anthropogenic CO 2 emissions to the atmosphere were 2040 ± 310 GtCO 2. About 40% of these emissions have remained in the atmosphere (880 ± 35 GtCO 2 ); the rest was removed from the atmosphere and stored on land (in plants and soils) and in the ocean. The ocean has absorbed about 30% of the emitted anthropogenic CO 2 , causing ocean acidification. About half of the anthropogenic CO 2 emissions between 1750 and 2011 have occurred in the last 40 years (high confidence) (Figure SPM.1d). {1.2.1, 1.2.2}

Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have increased since the pre-industrial era, driven

largely by economic and population growth, and are now higher than ever. This has led to atmo-

spheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide that are unprecedented in

at least the last 800,000 years. Their effects, together with those of other anthropogenic driv-

ers, have been detected throughout the climate system and are extremely likely to have been

the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century. {1.2, 1.3.1}

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Total anthropogenic GHG emissions have continued to increase over 1970 to 2010 with larger absolute increases between 2000 and 2010, despite a growing number of climate change mitigation policies. Anthropogenic GHG emissions in 2010 have reached 49 ± 4.5 GtCO 2 -eq/yr 3. Emissions of CO 2 from fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes contributed about 78% of the total GHG emissions increase from 1970 to 2010, with a similar percentage contribution for the increase during the period 2000 to 2010 (high confidence) (Figure SPM.2). Globally, economic and population growth continued to be the most important drivers of increases in CO 2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion. The contribution of population growth between 2000 and 2010 remained roughly identical to the previous three decades, while the contribution of economic growth has risen sharply. Increased use of coal has reversed the long-standing trend of gradual decarbonization (i.e., reducing the carbon intensity of energy) of the world’s energy supply (high confidence). {1.2.2}

The evidence for human influence on the climate system has grown since the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). It is extremely likely that more than half of the observed increase in global average surface temperature from 1951 to 2010 was caused by the anthropogenic increase in GHG concentrations and other anthropogenic forcings together. The best estimate of the human-induced contribution to warming is similar to the observed warming over this period (Figure SPM.3). Anthro- pogenic forcings have likely made a substantial contribution to surface temperature increases since the mid-20th century over every continental region except Antarctica^4. Anthropogenic influences have likely affected the global water cycle since 1960 and contributed to the retreat of glaciers since the 1960s and to the increased surface melting of the Greenland ice sheet since 1993. Anthropogenic influences have very likely contributed to Arctic sea-ice loss since 1979 and have very likely made a substantial contribution to increases in global upper ocean heat content (0–700 m) and to global mean sea level rise observed since the 1970s. {1.3, Figure 1.10}

(^3) Greenhouse gas emissions are quantified as CO 2 -equivalent (GtCO 2 -eq) emissions using weightings based on the 100-year Global Warming Potentials, using IPCC Second Assessment Report values unless otherwise stated. {Box 3.2} (^4) For Antarctica, large observational uncertainties result in low confidence that anthropogenic forcings have contributed to the observed warming aver- aged over available stations.

Gas

CO 2 Fossil fuel and industrial processes

CO 2 FOLU

CH (^4)

N 2 O

F-Gases

2010 2010 Year (^) (GWP 100 SAR) (GWP 100 AR5)

Total annual anthropogenic GHG emissions by gases 1970–

27 Gt

52 Gt

55%

17%

19%

7.9% 0.44%

5.0%

2.2%

38 Gt

59%

16%

18%

7.4% 0.81%

49 Gt

65%

11%

16%

6.2%

2.0%

GHG emissions (GtCO

-eq/yr) 2

0

10

20

30

40

50

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

+2.2%/yr 2000–

+1.3%/yr 1970–

10%

20%

62%

Figure SPM.2 | Total annual anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (gigatonne of CO 2 -equivalent per year, GtCO 2 -eq/yr) for the period 1970 to 2010 by gases: CO 2 from fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes; CO 2 from Forestry and Other Land Use (FOLU); methane (CH 4 ); nitrous oxide (N 2 O); fluorinated gases covered under the Kyoto Protocol (F-gases). Right hand side shows 2010 emissions, using alternatively CO 2 -equivalent emission weightings based on IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR) and AR5 values. Unless otherwise stated, CO 2 -equivalent emissions in this report include the basket of Kyoto gases (CO 2 , CH 4 , N 2 O as well as F-gases) calculated based on 100-year Global Warming Potential (GWP 100 ) values from the SAR (see Glos- sary). Using the most recent GWP 100 values from the AR5 (right-hand bars) would result in higher total annual GHG emissions (52 GtCO 2 -eq/yr) from an increased contribution of methane, but does not change the long-term trend significantly. {Figure 1.6, Box 3.2}

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SPM 1.4 Extreme events

Changes in many extreme weather and climate events have been observed since about 1950.

Some of these changes have been linked to human influences, including a decrease in cold tem-

perature extremes, an increase in warm temperature extremes, an increase in extreme high sea

levels and an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events in a number of regions. {1.4}

It is very likely that the number of cold days and nights has decreased and the number of warm days and nights has increased on the global scale. It is likely that the frequency of heat waves has increased in large parts of Europe, Asia and Australia. It is

Widespread impacts attributed to climate change based on the available scientific literature since the AR

verylow low medhighveryhigh

Glaciers, snow, ice and/or permafrost

indicates confidence range

Rivers, lakes, floods and/or drought

Terrestrial ecosystems Impacts identifiedbased on availability of studies across a region Coastal erosionand/or sea level effects Marine ecosystems

Wildfire Livelihoods, healthand/or economics

Food production

Physical systems Biological systems Human and managed systems

Filled symbols = Major contribution of climate change Outlined symbols = Minor contribution of climate change

Confidence in attribution to climate change Observed impacts attributed to climate change for

9329

10544

8101

1987 2982 3255

AUSTRALASIA

NORTH AMERICA ASIA

CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA

AFRICA

EUROPE

SMALL ISLANDS

POLAR REGIONS (Arctic and Antarctic)

Figure SPM.4 | Based on the available scientific literature since the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), there are substantially more impacts in recent decades now attributed to climate change. Attribution requires defined scientific evidence on the role of climate change. Absence from the map of addi- tional impacts attributed to climate change does not imply that such impacts have not occurred. The publications supporting attributed impacts reflect a growing knowledge base, but publications are still limited for many regions, systems and processes, highlighting gaps in data and studies. Symbols indicate categories of attributed impacts, the relative contribution of climate change (major or minor) to the observed impact and confidence in attribution. Each symbol refers to one or more entries in WGII Table SPM.A1, grouping related regional-scale impacts. Numbers in ovals indicate regional totals of climate change publications from 2001 to 2010, based on the Scopus bibliographic database for publications in English with individual countries mentioned in title, abstract or key words (as of July 2011). These numbers provide an overall measure of the available scientific literature on climate change across regions; they do not indicate the number of publications supporting attribution of climate change impacts in each region. Studies for polar regions and small islands are grouped with neighbouring continental regions. The inclusion of publications for assessment of attribution followed IPCC scientific evidence criteria defined in WGII Chapter 18. Publications considered in the attribution analyses come from a broader range of literature assessed in the WGII AR5. See WGII Table SPM.A1 for descriptions of the attributed impacts. {Figure 1.11}

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very likely that human influence has contributed to the observed global scale changes in the frequency and intensity of daily temperature extremes since the mid-20th century. It is likely that human influence has more than doubled the prob- ability of occurrence of heat waves in some locations. There is medium confidence that the observed warming has increased heat-related human mortality and decreased cold-related human mortality in some regions. {1.4}

There are likely more land regions where the number of heavy precipitation events has increased than where it has decreased. Recent detection of increasing trends in extreme precipitation and discharge in some catchments implies greater risks of flooding at regional scale (medium confidence). It is likely that extreme sea levels (for example, as experienced in storm surges) have increased since 1970, being mainly a result of rising mean sea level. {1.4}

Impacts from recent climate-related extremes, such as heat waves, droughts, floods, cyclones and wildfires, reveal significant vulnerability and exposure of some ecosystems and many human systems to current climate variability (very high confi- dence). {1.4}

SPM 2. Future Climate Changes, Risks and Impacts

Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting

changes in all components of the climate system, increasing the likelihood of severe,

pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems. Limiting climate change would

require substantial and sustained reductions in greenhouse gas emissions which, together

with adaptation, can limit climate change risks. {2}

SPM 2.1 Key drivers of future climate

Cumulative emissions of CO 2 largely determine global mean surface warming by the late

21st century and beyond. Projections of greenhouse gas emissions vary over a wide range,

depending on both socio-economic development and climate policy. {2.1}

Anthropogenic GHG emissions are mainly driven by population size, economic activity, lifestyle, energy use, land use patterns, technology and climate policy. The Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs), which are used for making projections based on these factors, describe four different 21st century pathways of GHG emissions and atmospheric concentrations, air pollutant emissions and land use. The RCPs include a stringent mitigation scenario (RCP2.6), two intermediate scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP6.0) and one scenario with very high GHG emissions (RCP8.5). Scenarios without additional efforts to constrain emissions (’baseline scenarios’) lead to pathways ranging between RCP6.0 and RCP8.5 (Figure SPM.5a). RCP2.6 is representative of a scenario that aims to keep global warming likely below 2°C above pre-industrial temperatures. The RCPs are consistent with the wide range of scenarios in the literature as assessed by WGIII^5. {2.1, Box 2.2, 4.3}

Multiple lines of evidence indicate a strong, consistent, almost linear relationship between cumulative CO 2 emissions and projected global temperature change to the year 2100 in both the RCPs and the wider set of mitigation scenarios analysed in WGIII (Figure SPM.5b). Any given level of warming is associated with a range of cumulative CO 2 emissions^6 , and therefore, e.g., higher emissions in earlier decades imply lower emissions later. {2.2.5, Table 2.2}

(^5) Roughly 300 baseline scenarios and 900 mitigation scenarios are categorized by CO 2 -equivalent concentration (CO 2 -eq) by 2100. The CO 2 -eq includes the forcing due to all GHGs (including halogenated gases and tropospheric ozone), aerosols and albedo change. (^6) Quantification of this range of CO 2 emissions requires taking into account non-CO 2 drivers.

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Multi-model results show that limiting total human-induced warming to less than 2°C relative to the period 1861–1880 with a probability of >66%^7 would require cumulative CO 2 emissions from all anthropogenic sources since 1870 to remain below about 2900 GtCO 2 (with a range of 2550 to 3150 GtCO 2 depending on non-CO 2 drivers). About 1900 GtCO 28 had already been emitted by 2011. For additional context see Table 2.2. {2.2.5}

SPM 2.2 Projected changes in the climate system

Surface temperature is projected to rise over the 21st century under all assessed emission

scenarios. It is very likely that heat waves will occur more often and last longer, and that

extreme precipitation events will become more intense and frequent in many regions. The

ocean will continue to warm and acidify, and global mean sea level to rise. {2.2}

The projected changes in Section SPM 2.2 are for 2081–2100 relative to 1986–2005, unless otherwise indicated.

Future climate will depend on committed warming caused by past anthropogenic emissions, as well as future anthropogenic emissions and natural climate variability. The global mean surface temperature change for the period 2016–2035 relative to 1986–2005 is similar for the four RCPs and will likely be in the range 0.3°C to 0.7°C (medium confidence). This assumes that there will be no major volcanic eruptions or changes in some natural sources (e.g., CH 4 and N 2 O), or unexpected changes in total solar irradiance. By mid-21st century, the magnitude of the projected climate change is substantially affected by the choice of emissions scenario. {2.2.1, Table 2.1}

Relative to 1850–1900, global surface temperature change for the end of the 21st century (2081–2100) is projected to likely exceed 1.5°C for RCP4.5, RCP6.0 and RCP8.5 (high confidence). Warming is likely to exceed 2°C for RCP6.0 and RCP8. (high confidence), more likely than not to exceed 2°C for RCP4.5 (medium confidence), but unlikely to exceed 2°C for RCP2. (medium confidence). {2.2.1}

The increase of global mean surface temperature by the end of the 21st century (2081–2100) relative to 1986–2005 is likely to be 0.3°C to 1.7°C under RCP2.6, 1.1°C to 2.6°C under RCP4.5, 1.4°C to 3.1°C under RCP6.0 and 2.6°C to 4.8°C under RCP8.5^9. The Arctic region will continue to warm more rapidly than the global mean (Figure SPM.6a, Figure SPM.7a). {2.2.1, Figure 2.1, Figure 2.2, Table 2.1}

It is virtually certain that there will be more frequent hot and fewer cold temperature extremes over most land areas on daily and seasonal timescales, as global mean surface temperature increases. It is very likely that heat waves will occur with a higher frequency and longer duration. Occasional cold winter extremes will continue to occur. {2.2.1}

(^7) Corresponding figures for limiting warming to 2°C with a probability of >50% and >33% are 3000 GtCO 2 (range of 2900 to 3200 GtCO 2 ) and 3300 GtCO 2 (range of 2950 to 3800 GtCO 2 ) respectively. Higher or lower temperature limits would imply larger or lower cumulative emissions respectively. (^8) This corresponds to about two thirds of the 2900 GtCO 2 that would limit warming to less than 2°C with a probability of >66%; to about 63% of the total amount of 3000 GtCO 2 that would limit warming to less than 2°C with a probability of >50%; and to about 58% of the total amount of 3300 GtCO 2 that would limit warming to less than 2°C with a probability of >33%. (^9) The period 1986–2005 is approximately 0.61 [0.55 to 0.67] °C warmer than 1850–1900. {2.2.1}

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Figure SPM.6 | Global average surface temperature change (a) and global mean sea level rise^10 (b) from 2006 to 2100 as determined by multi-model simulations. All changes are relative to 1986–2005. Time series of projections and a measure of uncertainty (shading) are shown for scenarios RCP2. (blue) and RCP8.5 (red). The mean and associated uncertainties averaged over 2081–2100 are given for all RCP scenarios as coloured vertical bars at the right hand side of each panel. The number of Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) models used to calculate the multi-model mean is indicated. {2.2, Figure 2.1}

Changes in precipitation will not be uniform. The high latitudes and the equatorial Pacific are likely to experience an increase in annual mean precipitation under the RCP8.5 scenario. In many mid-latitude and subtropical dry regions, mean precipi- tation will likely decrease, while in many mid-latitude wet regions, mean precipitation will likely increase under the RCP8. scenario (Figure SPM.7b). Extreme precipitation events over most of the mid-latitude land masses and over wet tropical regions will very likely become more intense and more frequent. {2.2.2, Figure 2.2}

The global ocean will continue to warm during the 21st century, with the strongest warming projected for the surface in tropical and Northern Hemisphere subtropical regions (Figure SPM.7a). {2.2.3, Figure 2.2}

(^10) Based on current understanding (from observations, physical understanding and modelling), only the collapse of marine-based sectors of the Antarctic ice sheet, if initiated, could cause global mean sea level to rise substantially above the likely range during the 21st century. There is medium confidence that this additional contribution would not exceed several tenths of a meter of sea level rise during the 21st century.

Global mean sea level rise (relative to 1986–2005)

RCP2.

RCP4.5RCP6.

RCP8.

Mean over 2081–

21

21

(b)

2000 2050 2100 Year

1

0

(m)

RCP2.

RCP4.5RCP6.

RCP8.

32

39

Global average surface temperature change (relative to 1986–2005) Mean over 2081–

(a)

2000 2050 2100 Year

6

4

2

0

(°C)

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There has been significant improvement in understanding and projection of sea level change since the AR4. Global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century, very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010. For the period 2081–2100 relative to 1986–2005, the rise will likely be in the ranges of 0.26 to 0.55 m for RCP2.6, and of 0.45 to 0.82 m for RCP8.5 (medium confidence)^10 (Figure SPM.6b). Sea level rise will not be uniform across regions. By the end of the 21st century, it is very likely that sea level will rise in more than about 95% of the ocean area. About 70% of the coastlines worldwide are projected to experience a sea level change within ±20% of the global mean. {2.2.3}

SPM 2.3 Future risks and impacts caused by a changing climate

Climate change will amplify existing risks and create new risks for natural and human sys-

tems. Risks are unevenly distributed and are generally greater for disadvantaged people and

communities in countries at all levels of development. {2.3}

Risk of climate-related impacts results from the interaction of climate-related hazards (including hazardous events and trends) with the vulnerability and exposure of human and natural systems, including their ability to adapt. Rising rates and magnitudes of warming and other changes in the climate system, accompanied by ocean acidification, increase the risk of severe, pervasive and in some cases irreversible detrimental impacts. Some risks are particularly relevant for individual regions (Figure SPM.8), while others are global. The overall risks of future climate change impacts can be reduced by limiting the rate and magnitude of climate change, including ocean acidification. The precise levels of climate change sufficient to trigger abrupt and irreversible change remain uncertain, but the risk associated with crossing such thresholds increases with rising temperature (medium confidence). For risk assessment, it is important to evaluate the widest possible range of impacts, including low-probability outcomes with large consequences. {1.5, 2.3, 2.4, 3.3, Box Introduction.1, Box 2.3, Box 2.4}

A large fraction of species faces increased extinction risk due to climate change during and beyond the 21st century, espe- cially as climate change interacts with other stressors (high confidence). Most plant species cannot naturally shift their geographical ranges sufficiently fast to keep up with current and high projected rates of climate change in most landscapes; most small mammals and freshwater molluscs will not be able to keep up at the rates projected under RCP4.5 and above in flat landscapes in this century (high confidence). Future risk is indicated to be high by the observation that natural global climate change at rates lower than current anthropogenic climate change caused significant ecosystem shifts and species extinctions during the past millions of years. Marine organisms will face progressively lower oxygen levels and high rates and magnitudes of ocean acidification (high confidence), with associated risks exacerbated by rising ocean temperature extremes (medium confidence). Coral reefs and polar ecosystems are highly vulnerable. Coastal systems and low-lying areas are at risk from sea level rise, which will continue for centuries even if the global mean temperature is stabilized (high confidence). {2.3, 2.4, Figure 2.5}

Climate change is projected to undermine food security (Figure SPM.9). Due to projected climate change by the mid-21st century and beyond, global marine species redistribution and marine biodiversity reduction in sensitive regions will challenge the sustained provision of fisheries productivity and other ecosystem services (high confidence). For wheat, rice and maize in tropical and temper- ate regions, climate change without adaptation is projected to negatively impact production for local temperature increases of 2°C or more above late 20th century levels, although individual locations may benefit (medium confidence). Global tem- perature increases of ~4°C or more^13 above late 20th century levels, combined with increasing food demand, would pose large risks to food security globally (high confidence). Climate change is projected to reduce renewable surface water and groundwater resources in most dry subtropical regions (robust evidence, high agreement), intensifying competition for water among sectors (limited evidence, medium agreement). {2.3.1, 2.3.2}

(^13) Projected warming averaged over land is larger than global average warming for all RCP scenarios for the period 2081–2100 relative to 1986–2005. For regional projections, see Figure SPM.7. {2.2}

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Regional key risks and potential for risk reduction

Glaciers,snow, iceand/orpermafrost

Rivers, lakes,floods and/ordrought

Terrestrialecosystems

Marineecosystems

Coastal erosionand/or sea leveleffects

Wildfire

Livelihoods, healthand/or economics

Foodproduction

Physical systems

Biological systems

Human and managed systems

Australasia

Asia

Increased risks tocoastal infrastructureand low-lyingecosystems

Significant change in compositionand structure of coral reef systemsIncreased flood damageto infrastructure andsettlements

Increased mass coralbleaching and mortality

Increased damagesfrom river and coastalurban floods

Heat-relatedhuman mortality

Increased damagesfrom wildfires

Loss of livelihoods,settlements, infrastructure,ecosystem services andeconomic stability Risks for low-lyingcoastal areas

Heat-relatedhuman mortality

Increased drought-related water andfood shortage

Reduced food production and quality

Increased damages fromriver and coastal floodsIncreased water restrictions

Compounded stresson water resourcesReduced crop productivity andlivelihood and food securityVector- and water-borne diseases

Increased flood damage toinfrastructure, livelihoodsand settlements

Increased damagesfrom extreme heatevents and wildfires

Reduced water availability andincreased flooding and landslides

North America

Central and South America

Africa

Europe

The Ocean

Small islands

Coastal inundationand habitat loss

Risks for ecosystems

Risks for healthand well-being

Unprecedented challenges,especially from rate of change

Polar Regions (Arctic and Antarctic)

Spread of vector-borne diseases

Distributionalshift and reducedfisheries catchpotential at low latitudes

Risk level with current

adaptation

Risk level with high

adaptation Verylow

Near term (2030–2040)

Present

Long term(2080–2100)

2°C4°C

Veryhigh

Risk level Medium

Potential foradditionaladaptation toreduce risk

not assessednot assessed

Representative key risks for each region for

Figure SPM.8 |

Representative key risks

14

for each region, including the potential for risk reduction through adaptation and mitigation, as well as limits to adaptation. Each key risk is assessed as

very low, low, medium, high or very high. Risk levels are presented for three time frames: present, near term (here, for 2030–2040) and long term (here, for 2080–2100). In the near term, projected levels of global mean temperature increase do not diverge substantially across different emission scenarios. For the long term, risk levels are presented for two possible futures (2°C and 4°C global mean temperature increase above pre-industrial levels). For each timeframe, risk levels are indicated for a continuation of current adaptation and assuming high levels of current or future adaptation. Risk levels are not necessarily comparable, especially across regions.

{Figure 2.4}

14

Identification of key risks was based on expert judgment using the following specific criteria: large magnitude, high probability or irreversibility of impacts; timing of impacts; persistent vulnerability or exposure contributing to risks; or limited potential to reduce risks through adaptation or mitigation.

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Rural areas are expected to experience major impacts on water availability and supply, food security, infrastructure and agricultural incomes, including shifts in the production areas of food and non-food crops around the world (high confidence). {2.3.2}

Aggregate economic losses accelerate with increasing temperature (limited evidence, high agreement), but global economic impacts from climate change are currently difficult to estimate. From a poverty perspective, climate change impacts are projected to slow down economic growth, make poverty reduction more difficult, further erode food security and prolong existing and create new poverty traps, the latter particularly in urban areas and emerging hotspots of hunger (medium confi- dence). International dimensions such as trade and relations among states are also important for understanding the risks of climate change at regional scales. {2.3.2}

Climate change is projected to increase displacement of people (medium evidence, high agreement). Populations that lack the resources for planned migration experience higher exposure to extreme weather events, particularly in developing coun- tries with low income. Climate change can indirectly increase risks of violent conflicts by amplifying well-documented drivers of these conflicts such as poverty and economic shocks (medium confidence). {2.3.2}

SPM 2.4 Climate change beyond 2100, irreversibility and abrupt changes

Many aspects of climate change and associated impacts will continue for centuries, even if

anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases are stopped. The risks of abrupt or irreversible

changes increase as the magnitude of the warming increases. {2.4}

Warming will continue beyond 2100 under all RCP scenarios except RCP2.6. Surface temperatures will remain approximately constant at elevated levels for many centuries after a complete cessation of net anthropogenic CO 2 emissions. A large frac- tion of anthropogenic climate change resulting from CO 2 emissions is irreversible on a multi-century to millennial timescale, except in the case of a large net removal of CO 2 from the atmosphere over a sustained period. {2.4, Figure 2.8}

Stabilization of global average surface temperature does not imply stabilization for all aspects of the climate system. Shifting biomes, soil carbon, ice sheets, ocean temperatures and associated sea level rise all have their own intrinsic long timescales which will result in changes lasting hundreds to thousands of years after global surface temperature is stabilized. {2.1, 2.4}

There is high confidence that ocean acidification will increase for centuries if CO 2 emissions continue, and will strongly affect marine ecosystems. {2.4}

It is virtually certain that global mean sea level rise will continue for many centuries beyond 2100, with the amount of rise dependent on future emissions. The threshold for the loss of the Greenland ice sheet over a millennium or more, and an asso- ciated sea level rise of up to 7 m, is greater than about 1°C (low confidence) but less than about 4°C (medium confidence) of global warming with respect to pre-industrial temperatures. Abrupt and irreversible ice loss from the Antarctic ice sheet is possible, but current evidence and understanding is insufficient to make a quantitative assessment. {2.4}

Magnitudes and rates of climate change associated with medium- to high-emission scenarios pose an increased risk of abrupt and irreversible regional-scale change in the composition, structure and function of marine, terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, including wetlands (medium confidence). A reduction in permafrost extent is virtually certain with continued rise in global temperatures. {2.4}

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SPM 3. Future Pathways for Adaptation, Mitigation and Sustainable Development

Adaptation and mitigation are complementary strategies for reducing and managing the risks

of climate change. Substantial emissions reductions over the next few decades can reduce cli-

mate risks in the 21st century and beyond, increase prospects for effective adaptation, reduce

the costs and challenges of mitigation in the longer term and contribute to climate-resilient

pathways for sustainable development. {3.2, 3.3, 3.4}

SPM 3.1 Foundations of decision-making about climate change

Effective decision-making to limit climate change and its effects can be informed by a wide

range of analytical approaches for evaluating expected risks and benefits, recognizing the

importance of governance, ethical dimensions, equity, value judgments, economic assess-

ments and diverse perceptions and responses to risk and uncertainty. {3.1}

Sustainable development and equity provide a basis for assessing climate policies. Limiting the effects of climate change is necessary to achieve sustainable development and equity, including poverty eradication. Countries’ past and future contri- butions to the accumulation of GHGs in the atmosphere are different, and countries also face varying challenges and circum- stances and have different capacities to address mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation and adaptation raise issues of equity, justice and fairness. Many of those most vulnerable to climate change have contributed and contribute little to GHG emis- sions. Delaying mitigation shifts burdens from the present to the future, and insufficient adaptation responses to emerging impacts are already eroding the basis for sustainable development. Comprehensive strategies in response to climate change that are consistent with sustainable development take into account the co-benefits, adverse side effects and risks that may arise from both adaptation and mitigation options. {3.1, 3.5, Box 3.4}

The design of climate policy is influenced by how individuals and organizations perceive risks and uncertainties and take them into account. Methods of valuation from economic, social and ethical analysis are available to assist decision-making. These methods can take account of a wide range of possible impacts, including low-probability outcomes with large conse- quences. But they cannot identify a single best balance between mitigation, adaptation and residual climate impacts. {3.1}

Climate change has the characteristics of a collective action problem at the global scale, because most GHGs accumulate over time and mix globally, and emissions by any agent (e.g., individual, community, company, country) affect other agents. Effective mitigation will not be achieved if individual agents advance their own interests independently. Cooperative responses, including international cooperation, are therefore required to effectively mitigate GHG emissions and address other climate change issues. The effectiveness of adaptation can be enhanced through complementary actions across levels, including international cooperation. The evidence suggests that outcomes seen as equitable can lead to more effective cooperation. {3.1}

SPM 3.2 Climate change risks reduced by mitigation and adaptation

Without additional mitigation efforts beyond those in place today, and even with adaptation,

warming by the end of the 21st century will lead to high to very high risk of severe, wide-

spread and irreversible impacts globally (high confidence). Mitigation involves some level

of co-benefits and of risks due to adverse side effects, but these risks do not involve the

same possibility of severe, widespread and irreversible impacts as risks from climate change,

increasing the benefits from near-term mitigation efforts. {3.2, 3.4}

Mitigation and adaptation are complementary approaches for reducing risks of climate change impacts over different time- scales (high confidence). Mitigation, in the near term and through the century, can substantially reduce climate change

SPM

1000 ppm CO 2 -eq), warming is more likely than not to exceed 4°C above pre-industrial levels by 2100 (Table SPM.1). The risks associated with temperatures at or above 4°C include substantial species extinction, global and regional food insecurity, consequential constraints on common human activities and limited potential for adaptation in some cases (high confidence). Some risks of climate change, such as risks to unique and threatened systems and risks associated with extreme weather events, are moderate to high at temperatures 1°C to 2°C above pre-industrial levels. {2.3, Figure 2.5, 3.2, 3.4, Box 2.4, Table SPM.1}

Substantial cuts in GHG emissions over the next few decades can substantially reduce risks of climate change by limiting warming in the second half of the 21st century and beyond. Cumulative emissions of CO 2 largely determine global mean surface warming by the late 21st century and beyond. Limiting risks across RFCs would imply a limit for cumulative emissions of CO 2. Such a limit would require that global net emissions of CO 2 eventually decrease to zero and would constrain annual emissions over the next few decades (Figure SPM.10) (high confidence). But some risks from climate damages are unavoid- able, even with mitigation and adaptation. {2.2.5, 3.2, 3.4}

Mitigation involves some level of co-benefits and risks, but these risks do not involve the same possibility of severe, wide- spread and irreversible impacts as risks from climate change. Inertia in the economic and climate system and the possibility of irreversible impacts from climate change increase the benefits from near-term mitigation efforts (high confidence). Delays in additional mitigation or constraints on technological options increase the longer-term mitigation costs to hold climate change risks at a given level (Table SPM.2). {3.2, 3.4}

SPM 3.3 Characteristics of adaptation pathways

Adaptation can reduce the risks of climate change impacts, but there are limits to its effec-

tiveness, especially with greater magnitudes and rates of climate change. Taking a longer-

term perspective, in the context of sustainable development, increases the likelihood that

more immediate adaptation actions will also enhance future options and preparedness. {3.3}

Adaptation can contribute to the well-being of populations, the security of assets and the maintenance of ecosystem goods, functions and services now and in the future. Adaptation is place- and context-specific (high confidence). A first step towards adaptation to future climate change is reducing vulnerability and exposure to present climate variability (high confidence). Integration of adaptation into planning, including policy design, and decision-making can promote synergies with develop- ment and disaster risk reduction. Building adaptive capacity is crucial for effective selection and implementation of adapta- tion options (robust evidence, high agreement). {3.3}

Adaptation planning and implementation can be enhanced through complementary actions across levels, from individuals to governments (high confidence). National governments can coordinate adaptation efforts of local and sub-national govern- ments, for example by protecting vulnerable groups, by supporting economic diversification and by providing information, policy and legal frameworks and financial support (robust evidence, high agreement). Local government and the private sector are increasingly recognized as critical to progress in adaptation, given their roles in scaling up adaptation of commu- nities, households and civil society and in managing risk information and financing (medium evidence, high agreement). {3.3}

Adaptation planning and implementation at all levels of governance are contingent on societal values, objectives and risk perceptions (high confidence). Recognition of diverse interests, circumstances, social-cultural contexts and expectations can benefit decision-making processes. Indigenous, local and traditional knowledge systems and practices, including indigenous peoples’ holistic view of community and environment, are a major resource for adapting to climate change, but these have not been used consistently in existing adaptation efforts. Integrating such forms of knowledge with existing practices increases the effectiveness of adaptation. {3.3}

Constraints can interact to impede adaptation planning and implementation (high confidence). Common constraints on implementation arise from the following: limited financial and human resources; limited integration or coordination of gov- ernance; uncertainties about projected impacts; different perceptions of risks; competing values; absence of key adapta- tion leaders and advocates; and limited tools to monitor adaptation effectiveness. Another constraint includes insufficient research, monitoring, and observation and the finance to maintain them. {3.3}

SPM

Greater rates and magnitude of climate change increase the likelihood of exceeding adaptation limits (high confidence). Limits to adaptation emerge from the interaction among climate change and biophysical and/or socio-economic constraints. Further, poor planning or implementation, overemphasizing short-term outcomes or failing to sufficiently anticipate conse- quences can result in maladaptation, increasing the vulnerability or exposure of the target group in the future or the vulner- ability of other people, places or sectors (medium evidence, high agreement). Underestimating the complexity of adaptation as a social process can create unrealistic expectations about achieving intended adaptation outcomes. {3.3}

Significant co-benefits, synergies and trade-offs exist between mitigation and adaptation and among different adap- tation responses; interactions occur both within and across regions (very high confidence). Increasing efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change imply an increasing complexity of interactions, particularly at the intersections among water, energy, land use and biodiversity, but tools to understand and manage these interactions remain limited. Examples of actions with co-benefits include (i) improved energy efficiency and cleaner energy sources, leading to reduced emissions of health-damaging, climate-altering air pollutants; (ii) reduced energy and water consumption in urban areas through greening cities and recycling water; (iii) sustainable agriculture and forestry; and (iv) protection of ecosystems for carbon storage and other ecosystem services. {3.3}

Transformations in economic, social, technological and political decisions and actions can enhance adaptation and promote sustainable development (high confidence). At the national level, transformation is considered most effective when it reflects a country’s own visions and approaches to achieving sustainable development in accordance with its national circumstances and priorities. Restricting adaptation responses to incremental changes to existing systems and structures, without consider- ing transformational change, may increase costs and losses and miss opportunities. Planning and implementation of trans- formational adaptation could reflect strengthened, altered or aligned paradigms and may place new and increased demands on governance structures to reconcile different goals and visions for the future and to address possible equity and ethical implications. Adaptation pathways are enhanced by iterative learning, deliberative processes and innovation. {3.3}

SPM 3.4 Characteristics of mitigation pathways

There are multiple mitigation pathways that are likely to limit warming to below 2°C relative

to pre-industrial levels. These pathways would require substantial emissions reductions over

the next few decades and near zero emissions of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases

by the end of the century. Implementing such reductions poses substantial technological, eco-

nomic, social and institutional challenges, which increase with delays in additional mitigation

and if key technologies are not available. Limiting warming to lower or higher levels involves

similar challenges but on different timescales. {3.4}

Without additional efforts to reduce GHG emissions beyond those in place today, global emissions growth is expected to persist, driven by growth in global population and economic activities. Global mean surface temperature increases in 2100 in baseline scenarios—those without additional mitigation—range from 3.7°C to 4.8°C above the average for 1850– for a median climate response. They range from 2.5°C to 7.8°C when including climate uncertainty (5th to 95th percentile range) (high confidence). {3.4}^14

Emissions scenarios leading to CO 2 -equivalent concentrations in 2100 of about 450 ppm or lower are likely to maintain warming below 2°C over the 21st century relative to pre-industrial levels^15. These scenarios are characterized by 40 to 70% global anthropogenic GHG emissions reductions by 2050 compared to 2010^16 , and emissions levels near zero or below in

2100. Mitigation scenarios reaching concentration levels of about 500 ppm CO 2 -eq by 2100 are more likely than not to limit temperature change to less than 2°C, unless they temporarily overshoot concentration levels of roughly 530 ppm CO 2 -eq

(^15) For comparison, the CO 2 -eq concentration in 2011 is estimated to be 430 ppm (uncertainty range 340 to 520 ppm) (^16) This range differs from the range provided for a similar concentration category in the AR4 (50 to 85% lower than 2000 for CO 2 only). Reasons for this difference include that this report has assessed a substantially larger number of scenarios than in the AR4 and looks at all GHGs. In addition, a large proportion of the new scenarios include Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) technologies (see below). Other factors include the use of 2100 concentration levels instead of stabilization levels and the shift in reference year from 2000 to 2010.