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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter, the writer presents the definition of drama, the elements of drama, the theory of character and characterization, the definition of values, and the list of American values in the twentieth century.
2.1. Definition of Drama Abrams (1988, p.45) states that drama is the literary form designed for performance in the theater, in which actors take roles of the characters, perform the indicated action, and utter the written dialogue. Fleming (2006) in http://www.hltmag.co.uk/jul06/mart01.htm cites that drama is inevitably learner- centered because it can only operate through active cooperation. Then, according to De Luca (1997, p.224) drama is a word of Greek origin dran meaning "action" and referring to a performance on the stage in which actors act out the events and characters of a story. Reaske (1966, p.30) cites that drama is a work of literature or a composition which describes life and human activity by means of presenting various actions of- and dialogues between- a group of characters. Anggraeni (2008, p.3) claims that drama is the development of character and situation through speech & action. Based on the definition above, the writer can conclude that a drama is an art form that explores human conflict and tension. It generally takes the form of a story presented to an audience through dialogue and action. The story is conveyed using the elements of the theatre such as actress, costumes, props, scenery, lighting, music, and sound.
2.2 Elements of Drama 2.2.1 Theme Barnet (1991, p.1281) says that theme is underlying or unifying idea (stated or implied) in a work, a conception of human experience suggested by the
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concrete details of the work. While, Birkerts (1992, p.846) states that a theme is briefly, the understanding that the author seeks to communicate through the work. According to Rothlein and Meinbach (1991, p.144) the theme of story ties together the plot, character, and setting. It is a feeling, an idea, a meaning that the author wants to convey about life, values, beliefs, society, or human behavior. The writer concludes that a theme is a central statement, focus, and point of a story.
2.2.2 Plot Lukens (1990, p.69) asserts that plot is the sequence of events showing characters in action. This sequence is not accidental but is chosen by the author as the best way of telling his or her story. If the writer has chosen well, the plot will produce conflict, tension, and action that will arouse and hold our interest. Barnet (1991, p.1279) asserts that usually plot introduces the characters and th settings (this is the exposition), then introduces a conflict, and then resolves the conflict in the denouement. Furthermore, Birkerts (1992, p.842-843) states about plot as follows: there is a set up, or exposition , wherein the characters and their situations are introduced. This is followed by the rising action , which poses and then intensifies the complications , building toward a climax. Finally there comes a resolution , also called the falling action , which shows the consequences. The resolution tells us how things turned out. Sometimes an author will attach a further explanation so that the reader does not mistake the meaning of the outcome. This is the denouement.
2.2.3 Character Lukens (1990, p.37) claims characters development in literature makes its own contribution to these ends. In addition, Roberts and Jacobs (1989, p.143) state that character in literature generally, and in fiction specifically, is an extended verbal representation of a human being, the inner self that determines thought, speech, and behavior. So that characters are, of course, as vital as the plot is. These are different types of characters.
2.2.5 Diction According to Anggraeni (2008, p.17) says that diction is the technical correctness of a drama. Diction insists that actors should speak and react appropriately to their character's position or station. For instance, an actor should portray a noble character with fine, dramatic language. Diction or language is also used to depart information, reveal characters, characterize direct attention, reveal themes and ideas, establish mood or tone, and establish tempo or rhythm appropriate to character.
2.2.6 Sounds This includes the music and singing in a play, as well as the chorus (a group of actors who commented on the action) in Aristotle's day. Aristotle insisted that a play's music should support the emotional elements of the play and add to emphasis to the overall performance. Ressler (2013, p.5) cites that sounds or music in drama also can help to establish mood, characterize, pleasurable, and lend variety.
2.3 Theory of Character and Characterization 2.3.1 Theory of Character Abrams (1988, p.20) states that characters can be divided into flat and round. A flat character is built around single idea or quality and is presented without much individualizing detail, and therefore can be fairly adequately described in a single phrase or sentence. A round character is complex in temperament and motivation and is represented with subtle particularity. Thus, he is as difficult to describe with any adequacy as a person in real life, and like most people, he is capable of surprising us. Ressler (2013, p.3) cites flat character has only one or two personality traits. They are one dimensional, like a piece of cardboard. They can be summed up in one phrase. Besides, round character has more dimensions to their personalities. They are complex, just a real people are. While, Anggraeni (2008, p.16) claims that flat characters stay at the same throughout story. There are no
changes. While round characters is a complex character who is presented in depth and detail in a narrative. They change significantly and most often are the central characters in a narrative. Koesnosoebroto (1988, p.67)groups characters into two. They are main or major character, and minor character. A major character is the most important character in a story. Generally, a story is about this character, but he cannot stand on his own. On the other hand, he needs others characters to make the story more convincing and life like. Then, minor character is the character of less importance than the main character. In addition, Milligan (1983, p.155) asserts that the major characters are those who become the focus in the story from the beginning to the end. Therefore they engage the readers or audience attention as their motivation and history are most fully established. The content of the story is highlighted to this character experience. And the major characters are those who appear in a certain setting.
2.3.2 Theory of Characterization Rohrberger and Woods (1971, p.20) say that there are two principal ways an author can characterize:
- He can use direct means to describe physical appearance. For the example, he can say that Andy is 5 feet 4 inches tall, weighs 115 pounds, and has black hair and brown eyes. In addition, he can describe his intellectual and moral attributes or explain the degree of her sensitivity. He can say that he is a bright boy who respects his parents and feels their disapproval strongly,
- He can use dramatic means and place him in situations to show what he is by the way he behaves or speaks. There are four ways, according to Goldstone (1962, p.6), how a character is established. The ways are: 1) dialogue spoken by the character, 2) dialogue spoken about the character, 3) action taken by the character and, 4) the personality interpretation of the actor playing the role. Playwrights have often composed a role with a specific actor or actress in mind.
- Character in action As the characters become more involved in the action of the play and show their motivations, we naturally learn more about them. Our understanding of motivation lies at the heart of analysis.
2.3.3 Theory of Setting Abrams (1981, p.175) explains that setting of a dramatic work as the general place, historical time and social circumstances in which its action occurs. The setting of an episode or scene within a work is the particular physical location in which it takes place. To make up a setting, there are four elements that must be fulfilled (Holman and Harmon, 1986, p.465). The four elements are :
- The actual geographical location such as topography, scenery, and such physical arrangements as the location of the windows and doors in a room,
- The occupations and daily manner of living of the characters
- The time or period in which the action takes place
- The general environment of the characters such as religious, mental, moral, social, and emotional conditions through which the people in the narrative move.
2.3.4 Theory of Tragedy According to Guth and Shinder (1981, p.585), tragedy is a play in which the central character, or protagonist, is a great or admirable person who goes down to defeat. While Holman and Harmon (1986, p.507) inform that tragedy treats human beings in terms of their godlike potential, or their transcendent ideals, of the part of themselves that is in rebellion against not only the implacable universe but the frailty of their own flesh and will. Aristotle divided all drama into tragedy and comedy. Tragedy recounts the fall off an individual, it begins in prosperity and ends in adversity. Comedy describes the regeneration or reformation of a group of people or society. It begins in adversity and resolves in prosperity.
The writer concludes that tragedy is a drama in which a major character not only undergoes a loss but also achieves illumination or a new perspective. It is considered the most elevated literary form because it concentrates affirmatively on the religious and cosmic implications of its major character’s misfortunes.
2.4 Values Schaefer (1986, p.67) states that each individual develops her or his own personal goals and ambitions, yet culture provides a general set of objectives for members. Values are these collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable, and proper or bad, undesirable, and improper in a culture. They indicate what people in given culture prefer as well as what they find important and morally right or wrong. Values may be specific such as honoring one’s parents and owning a home, or they may be more general such as health, love, and democracy. Values influence people’s behavior and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of others.
2.4.1 American Values Meanwhile, Williams (1965, p.43) identifies that there are twelve values living in United States of American community. They are: Individualism (Consistent Persistence), Achievement and Success (Success Emphasis), Activity and Work (Work for work’s sake), Efficiency and Practically, Science and Technology, Rapid Technological Change, Material Comfort, Humanitarianism, Freedom, Democracy, Equality, Racism and Group Superiority.
- Individualism (Consistent Persistence) Americans have traditionally prized success that comes from individual effort and initiative. They cherish the ideal that an individual can raise from the bottom of society to its very top. If someone fails to "get ahead," Americans generally find fault with that individual, rather than with the
- Democracy Americans refer to majority rule, to the right of everyone, to express an opinion, and to representative government.
- Equality It is impossible to understand Americans without being aware of the central role that the value of equality plays in their lives. Equality of opportunity has significantly influenced US history and continues to mark relations between groups that make up US society.
- Racism and Group Superiority Although it contradicts freedom, democracy, and equality, Americans value some groups more than others and have done so throughout their history. The slaughter of Native Americans and the enslaving of Africans are the most notorious examples.
Table 1. Cluster of American values Direction of change 1945- I. Competitive achievement and success Activity and Work Efficiency and practically Science and secular rationality
II. Individual personality and value of self Freedom Equality Democracy
III. Progress Material Comfort
IV. Humanitarian domestic mores Moral orientation
V. Nationalism and patriotism Racism and group superiority External conformity
(+) denotes decrease, (-) denotes increase, (±) denotes evidence for both increases and decreases in different groups or in terms of different aspects of these values.
Source: Robin Williams, (1965).
