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Child Development: From Infancy to Early Childhood - A Comprehensive Guide with Exercises, Exams of Medicine

A comprehensive overview of child development from infancy to early childhood, covering key milestones, theories, and practical applications. It explores various aspects of physical, psychosocial, and cognitive development, including breastfeeding, sleep patterns, brain development, cognitive development, and social-emotional growth. The document also includes exercises and questions to reinforce learning and promote deeper understanding of the concepts discussed.

Typology: Exams

2024/2025

Available from 03/07/2025

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CHD4537 Exam 2 2025 EDITION GET A+
What are the benefits to breastfeeding?
-The mother's antibodies (proteins that fight infection) can be transmitted to the infant through
her breast milk; This helps the infant to develop increased immunity against disease.
-Nursing is a healthy bonding opportunity
-Infants who have been breast-fed are less likely to become obese and develop diabetes in later
life
-Mothers who have nursed lower their risk for breast cancer, diabetes, and heart disease
-The mothers who nurse lose the weight gained during pregnancy faster.
When is breastfeeding discouraged?
When the mother has an infectious disease that can pass to their infant (e.g., hepatitis, untreated
tuberculosis, and HIV) Certain medications, alcohol and nicotine can also be transmitted.
Sucking reflex
Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple strokes the lips,
cheek, or mouth area
Rooting reflex
a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and
search for the nipple
duration of breastfeeding (how often, how old)
-Infants requires feeding every 2-4 hours
-Exclusively up to 6 months, and then used in supplement with solid foods.
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CHD4537 Exam 2 2025 EDITION GET A+

What are the benefits to breastfeeding?

  • The mother's antibodies (proteins that fight infection) can be transmitted to the infant through her breast milk; This helps the infant to develop increased immunity against disease.
  • Nursing is a healthy bonding opportunity
  • Infants who have been breast-fed are less likely to become obese and develop diabetes in later life
  • Mothers who have nursed lower their risk for breast cancer, diabetes, and heart disease
  • The mothers who nurse lose the weight gained during pregnancy faster. When is breastfeeding discouraged? When the mother has an infectious disease that can pass to their infant (e.g., hepatitis, untreated tuberculosis, and HIV) Certain medications, alcohol and nicotine can also be transmitted. Sucking reflex Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple strokes the lips, cheek, or mouth area Rooting reflex a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple duration of breastfeeding (how often, how old)
  • Infants requires feeding every 2-4 hours
  • Exclusively up to 6 months, and then used in supplement with solid foods.

Weaning Changing from drinking from the bottle or breast to a cup

  • Occurs around 4-6 months "Ferber method" of sleeping "Cry it out" method that encourages babies to sleep through the night Infant demand parenting or Proximal Care Characterized by extensive infant holding, Structures parenting (not excessive holding) leads to more overall fussing and crying during the first three months, but reduced night walking and crying after that Colic
  • Crying for more than 3 hours, for more than 3 days a week, for more than 3 weeks (3- 3 - 3)
  • Generally btwn 2-3 months old
  • Up to 40% of infants have colic Brain Development in Infancy
  • Rapid growth during first 2 years
  • Reflexes provide foundation
  • Parents should provide nutrition, sensory stimulation, and nurture

Object Permanence (Piaget) concept, gained in infancy, that objects continue to exist even when they are hidden from view

  • Mom walks away, but you know they are going to return Freud Oral Stage (birth to 18 months) Relief from anxiety through oral gratification of needs (sucking, chewing, feeding, crying ) Developmental Milestones during Toddlerhood
  • Developing impulse control and self-regulated skills
  • Establishing early speech patterns and language development
  • Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
  • Autonomy and independence
  • Empathy, Morality, and Standards
  • Gender Identity and Gender-Role Modification
  • Establishing close relationships Family systemic Developmental Theory (pg. 167-168)
  • This theory promotes the notions that families are both similar and diverse and that the concepts of wholeness and interrelatedness are strong characteristics of their complexity. - Common developmental process among all families is the experience of stressors at various times in their existence. Stressors are those phenomena that force a family system to adapt, resulting in what is referred to as a transition Autonomy Development in Toddlerhood

Self-regulation in Toddlerhood

  • 12 to 18 months
  • Wait Self-comfort
  • Resist temptation
  • Follow rules and directions
  • Self-monitoring
  • Self-inhibition of previously prohibited behavior
  • Compliance
  • Regulate reactions to emotions Facilitating Self-regulation in Toddlerhood
  • Model self-regulation
  • Set clear rules
  • Discuss behavioral expectations
  • Descriptive praise
  • Examples of personal autonomy: Saying "No" to parents' demands, Dressing without supervision, Testing limits, Toilet training Self-control in Toddlerhood
  • the ability to comply with requests
  • to delay specific activities because of either self-instruction or another's demand
  • to monitor their behavior according to caregiver expectations in the absence of the caregiver

Better compliance in toddlers associated with ___________________ Defiance associated with ______________________

  • Better compliance in toddlers associated with= guidance and nonassertive methods of control
  • Defiance associated with= power-assertive techniques and physical punishment Early Childhood
  • The period in a person's life between the ages of 3 and 6
  • Children of these ages are known as preschoolers
  • Rate of developmental change is slower compared to infancy and prenatal development Developmental Milestones in Early Childhood (Physical)
  • Slower rate of growth in weight and height
  • Small appetite; may be a picky eater
  • Uses a preferred hand, left or right
  • All primary teeth erupt
  • Major gross motor skills are mastered (e.g., running, climbing)
  • Fine motor skills emerge (e.g., creation of art)
  • High energy level

Developmental Milestones in Early Childhood (Psychosocial)

  • Expanding awareness of self, others, and things
  • Gaining independence and some self-control
  • High curiosity level
  • Beginning socialization experiences (e.g., appropriate social and gender-role behaviors)
  • Learns by doing and from mistakes
  • Initiative vs guilt (psychosocial crisis) Developmental Milestones in Early Childhood (Cognitive)
  • Expanding vocabulary
  • Memory improving, retaining info
  • Preoccupation with classification and the grouping of things (piagets developmental stage)
  • Building information about the world
  • Flaws in thinking, such as egocentrism (can only see ur perspective) , animism (think inanimate objects are alive), arriving at unwarranted conclusions, and self-centered thinking Nutritional Needs in Early Childhood
  • Purpose is to teach...Responsible behavior, Good citizenship, Interpersonal skills, and Define limits and appropriate behaviors Negotiable Rules Can be discussed Help children to learn how to think and use discussion as a means of conflict resolution
  • Negotiable rules: Help teach children conflict resolution skills
  • Healthy families use a combination of negotiable and non-negotiable rules
  • e.g. reading book every night before bed behaviors promoting structure/nurturance
  • Affirming developmental tasks
  • Providing safety, protection, love
  • Encouraging exploration
  • Encouraging expressiveness
  • Giving clear directions
  • Enforcing simple rules Facilitating Socialization: Promoting Prosocial and Moral Behaviors
  • Empathy = ability to consider the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others
  • Sympathy = ability to feel the same way others do
  • First step to empathy
  • Displayed through sharing, comforting, helping others
  • Influenced through modeling/observation Facilitating Socialization: Aggression
  • Hostile action that causes fear and forces interaction
  • Verbal or physical
  • Promotes discovery of personal boundaries
  • Parents are encouraged to use reinforcement over spanking
  • Spanking can confuse child, if child is in trouble for hitting someone but then gets spanked this can confuse the child be sending mixed messages. Facilitating Socialization: Encouraging positive sex-role development
  • Gender identity is encouraged by gender based toys, also implicit and explicit influences from society.
  • Social competence associated with androgynous social and vocational roles Facilitating Socialization: Teaching about Sexuality
  • Prevalent throughout lifespan, not just puberty
  • Parents' emotional tone and affect
  • The role of toys and play teaches sexuality, or gender roles
  • If the parents act like sexuality is secret, then the child could develop confusion and question about sexuality. Parents are encouraged to use resources and there are many ways to discuss sexuality. Facilitating Socialization: Teaching about Dying and Death
  • Difficult to understand the finality of death
  • Parents should consider cognitive abilities and developmental progress

Keys to Facilitating Cognitive Development in Early Childhood

  • Providing a wide variety of experiences
  • Helping young children acquire accurate information
  • Serving as an interpreter of the world and of family values Facilitating emotional development in early childhood
  • Preschoolers become increasingly accurate at understanding emotions (esp. anger and distress)
  • A preschooler's most common form of emotional upset is crying
  • Children in this stage are able to show their feelings, but can't hide their feelings as well
  • Temperament influences emotional reactions
  • Preschoolers often develop fears To Facilitating Cognitive Development Parents should...
  • Give practical, problem solving suggestions
  • Encourage children to take action with problems
  • Encourage children to express their feelings of sadness and distress
  • Teach them to deal with these appropriately Positive Guidance Methods
  • Communication based on respect and skill
  • Praise and positive reinforcement should not be overused
  • Message that you display is very important.
  • Constructively deal with conflicts
  • When it comes to conflict help them learn conflict resolution skills
  • Avoid self-defeating adult patterns and avoid sarcasm and threats to get behaviors you want, this can confuse the child
  • Communication is more effective when physical differences are minimized
  • When communicating get down on your child's level. Be face to face.
  • Increase responsibility as appropriate and teach them how to choose, makes them feel they are in charge of. Their behaviors.
  • Set reasonable limits, know what they can and cannot do Problems in Early Childhood
  • Bedtime and sleeping problems
  • Sleep hygiene routine, creating a routine to brush teeth
  • Planned ignorance = don't reenter the room, encourages the child to go to bed and that once in bed you stay there
  • Failure to thrive
  • Bad dreams and nightmares, important to reduce exposure can help alleviate fears or nightmares
  • Problems with elimination, problems with stress
  • Eating problems = may be resistant to eating or may partake in overeating. Headstart program
  • Preschool program designed to prepare kids in low-income households.
  • Increasingly critical of adults, Start to reach that concrete operational stage of thinking
  • Increasingly peer oriented, Focused on peer relationships, plays huge roles in influencing adolescents and teens
  • Falls under Erickson's psychosocial crisis Industry v. Inferiority (Middle Childhood) Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive
  • Attitude of duty and accomplishment:
  • Positive work ethic
  • Mastering developmentally appropriate skills, which is based on cultural expectations like reading, writing, group politics
  • Sense of responsibility
  • Accomplishing developmental tasks contributes to the development of...Sense of self and Self- esteem
  • Parents encouraged to exercise reinforcement when tasks are completed adequately
  • Encourage children to take on arts and crafts Social/Mental Development in Middle Childhood
  • Prefers activities with same-sex peers
  • Light competition (starts to compare competence to others)
  • Form close friendships
  • Group participation (sports)
  • Self-concept influenced by social comparison
  • Curiosity
  • Reading and calculation
  • Concrete thought processes Physical/motor development in Middle Childhood
  • Gender differences can be observed in physical skills
  • Hand-eye coordination
  • High energy levels
  • Permanent teeth
  • Body configuration changes due to puberty Competent eating
  • Competent eaters are positive, comfortable, and flexible with food intake
  • Share family meal time, this helps establish eating routines based on hunger and also appropriate times to eat as well as helping facilitate their ability to consume their proper nutrition Main concerns of competent eating
  • Obesity
  • Poor nutrition
  • Could lead to diabetes and hypertension
  • Spontaneous Formation: neighborhood friends
  • Formal: elementary school (typically grouped by age)
  • Social comparison:
  • Occurs among older school age children
  • Self-serving bias: comparing oneself to less competent peer
  • Will agree with criticisms from peers
  • Helping children with rejection:
  • Important to interpret true reality of the situation Bullying
  • Children from abusive parents more likely to bully
  • Associated with long-term negative impacts for victim (depression, anxiety, suicide) and bully (substance abuse, risk of spousal or child abuse, risk of antisocial behavior)
  • Parents should.. facilitate open communication, promote social competence, teach child how to deescalate bullying, be a positive example Promoting cognitive development in Middle Childhood (Concrete Operations)
  • Classification
  • Decentering: multitasking
  • Reversibility: Addition and subtraction
  • Conservation: Mental imagery helps facilitate better understanding
  • Seriation: Extension of classification, scaling objects
  • Understanding time
  • Cognitive conceit, All or nothing, Lacking development in logical thinking Conservation (Piaget) the principle (a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects Decentering (Piaget) The concrete operational child's ability to look at several dimensions of an object or substance Seriation (Piaget) the ability to organize objects in order from least to most amount. (ex rank order objects on a dimension like height or length) Cognitive conceit a characteristic of thought in middle childhood in which individuals perceive situations and people in black-and-white, all-or-nothing