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CJC 205 EXAM 1 WITH QUESTIONS AND CORRECT
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Define Epistemology subfield of philosophy focused on the nature, origin, and limits of knowledge
define Primary research the collection of original data directly by a researcher
· Secondary research a research method where a researcher analyzes and interprets data that has already been collected
Primary data information collected directly by a researcher specifically designed to address a research question
Secondary data data previously collected for any purpose other than the one at hand
Research methods quantitative and qualitative
Applied research systematic inquiry that aims to solve real-world problems by applying existing knowledge and theories to develop practical solutions
Descriptive research to describe characteristics, patterns, or trends in a phenomenon
Causal/Explanatory research seeks to identify causes and/or effects of social phenomena
Sensory perception - use our five main senses to know things about the world around us
Intuition -
- relying on our guts, emotions, and/or instincts to guide us
Authority accepting ideas, values, beliefs, etc. because they are passed down through authority figures
Logic using reason and inference to draw conclusions
what are the five characteristics of the scientific method?
- Systematic observation 2. Logical explanation 3. Prediction 4. Openness 5. Skepticism
Research a social and intellectual activity that involves systematic inquiry
What are the qualities of research? comes in many forms
The scientific process is transparent, meaning findings are shared with the scientific community for review
what is skepticism? Scientists do not accept claims without sufficient evidence - questioning assumptions and conclusions
What are two examples of cognitive biases that may lead to inaccurate beliefs about the world? confirmation bias
anchoring bias
what is confirmation bias? tendency to seek out information that confirms existing beliefs and ignore contradictory evidence
what is anchoring bias? over-reliance on the first piece of information received when making a decision, even if it might be irrelevant
what is overconfidence bias? overestimation of the accuracy of knowledge and judgements
what is single cause fallacy? when an arguer attributes only one cause to a complex problem
Examples of descriptive research observation, surveys and interviews, case studies
examples of causal research lab experiments, field studies, test markets
What is Theory? well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations
what is longitudinal variation? changes or differences observed in a variable over time
what is cross-sectional variation? variation of data collected from a group of people at a single point in time.
what are descriptive research questions? to describe characteristics, patterns, or trends in a phenomenon without exploring causation
what are exploratory research questions? is to explore new or under-researched topics without much a priori knowledge or expectations
if the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable increases
what is a mediator? a variable that explains how an independent variable influences a dependent variable,
what is a moderator? a variable that modifies the form or strength of the relation between an independent and a dependent variable.
what is an unit of analysis? the primary entity or subject that a researcher is studying and analyzing in their study
What are some functions/characteristics of scientific theories?
what are the 5 steps to creating a research question? broad topic preliminary background research Narrow down Evaluate
choose final rq
what is negative association? when one variable increases, the other variable decreases, indicating an inverse relationship
moderator vs mediator a "mediator" variable explains the processpf relation, while a "moderator" variable affects the strength or direction of the relationship
what are 6 key factors of theories Specify units of analysis Explain variation in things Identify key variables Generate hypotheses Identify causal mechanisms. Be falsifiable
Function of directional arrows? depict causal relationships between variables
A plus sign (+) is used to indicate Positive associations
Dashed Lines show assumptions, hypothetical relationships, constraints, or feedback loops
what is Conceptualization? Defining the construct to be measured, including dimensions
What is a dimension? specifiable parts or sub-components of a concept
What is operationalization? is the process of spelling out exactly how a concept will be measured
what is an instrument? tools that help us measure something
what is an indicator? is an observable measure of a specific characteristic or latent trait
what is Measurement reliability
measure is reliable when it yields consistent scores or observations of a phenomenon
what is face validity when the measure makes intuitive sense
what is content validity when the indicators used cover the full range of the construct's meaning
what is concurrent valdity Measure you created agrees with another, contemporaneous measure of the same thing
what is predictive validity Measure predicts something that should logically follow in the future
what is measurement validity? refers to how well the measure represents the true concept of interest - the thing we are trying to measure
what is Test-retest reliability? measuring the same phenomenon multiple times
Importance of Reliable and Valid Measurement in Empirical Research
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement
Validity refers to the accuracy of a measurement
What are some potential problems with Reliable and Valid Measurement in Empirical Research
Inconsistent Results
Incorrect Conclusions
Lack of Generalizability
Ethical Issues
Measurement is the process of systematically observing
what is a concept? a mental image that summarizes a set of similar phenomena, events, or observations
what is an operational definition a set of rules and procedures (operations) that a researcher carries out in making and recording a measurement
What are the three main steps in the measurement process? Identification Comparison Quantification
what is identification? This step involves defining what is being measured and selecting the appropriate unit of measurement.
what is comparison? the object being measured is compared to a known standard or unit.
what is quantification? This step involves assigning a numerical value to the measurement based on the comparison
target population
What is nonresponse bias? a type of survey bias that occurs when survey participants are unwilling or unable to respond to a survey question or an entire survey
What is volunteer bias? Only certain types of people are likely to volunteer for studies
What is sampling error? statistical errors that arise when a sample does not represent the whole population.
What is non-probability sampling? a research method where participants are selected for a study based on criteria other than random chance
What is the margin of error? a statistical term that represents the range of uncertainty or variability around an estimate or measurement.
What is a confidence interval? a range of values that estimates how likely a true value is to fall between those values
What is the ultimate goal of sampling in research - that is, why do we take small subsets of elements out of the larger population? Generalizability Efficiency Accuracy and Precision Accuracy and Precision
Simple Random Sampling every member of the population has an equal probability of being selected for the sample
Stratified Random Sampling elements are selected randomly, but from within certain pre-defined groups (strata) that share a common trait
Disproportionate Stratified Sampling you are selecting from strata in different proportions to the population.
Quota Sampling , elements are selected to ensure that the sample represents certain characteristics proportionate to populate
