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PHIL 1501: Introduction to Philosophy Fall 2008 Distance Learning Off-line Dr. John Eigenauer Course Calendar and Questions This section of Introduction to Philosophy uses the concept of DOUBT as a unifying thesis of philosophy to teach the most important philosophical ideas. It requires very careful reading; don’t be surprised if you have to read sections two or three times to understand them. This is a normal part of the philosophical process itself—struggling to understand what other great thinkers are arguing. You will have the privilege of reading one of the best introductions to Philosophy ever written: Doubt: A History. You will need to read it carefully, going over important passages several times, and thinking hard about what they mean. You will have approximately two weeks to complete each reading and answer the questions for one unit (a chapter). Since the chapters average 40+ pages and the questions are fairly challenging, you should read every day. I must restate this clearly: do not attempt to read the assigned chapter in one sitting —much less a night or two before the assignment is due; it is much too challenging. If you want to succeed in this course, read the book a little every day and try to answer questions a few at a time. None of the questions you have to answer have objective answers. This means that you will never be asked a question such as, “Who was Socrates’ most famous student?” However, because there are no objective questions does not mean that there are no right answers. It simply means that you will have to think hard to create answers that are reasonable and make sense within the context of the reading. All assignments submitted by email must be in Microsoft Word format in 12 point Verdana font. DO NOT submit answers in the body of an email. Make sure that you submit the question with the answer: put the question first, followed by your answer to the question.
Unit 1: Greek Doubt Reading assignment: chapter 1, Greek Doubt , pages 1-44. Due Monday February 2, 2009 9 questions x 10 points each = 90 points possible. Chapter One Questions
- In what ways were Anaximandros, Heraclitus, and Protagoras “scientific” thinkers (even though they were not “scientists” in the modern sense of the word)?
- Read the section on Plato (pages 11-20). Defend with logic and examples the idea that Plato was a doubter.
- In what ways did Aristotle “champion rationalism”?
- Why do some people say that Democritus was a very modern thinker?
- Based upon your understanding of Diogenes’ philosophy as presented in the book, list two things (not mentioned in the book) that you think Diogenes probably doubted and DEFEND each choice with clear reasoning.
- Why is Epicurus important in the history of doubt even though he believed in gods?
- What is the difference between doubt and disbelief in Epicurus’ thought? PERSONAL REFLECTION:
- Please comment on this passage by Epicurus: “The true understanding of the fact that death is nothing to us renders enjoyable the mortality of existence, not by adding infinite time but by taking away the yearning for immortality.” ( Because this is a personal reflection, it will not be graded. It is intended as an exercise to make you think about important matters in a personal way ).
- Why would it be difficult for most people to accept Pyrrho’s extreme skeptical position (that we can know nothing)?
- In your own words, explain why Carneades’ “sophisticated notion of probability” was an improvement on Pyrrho’s extreme skepticism.
Unit 3: Christian Doubt Reading assignment: chapter 5, Late Classical Mix , pages 169-215. Due Monday March 2, 2009 9 questions x 10 points each = 90 points possible. Chapter Five Questions
- What is surprising about the information on page 174 regarding Jesus and Paul? (Please do not answer “nothing”). Include several observations.
- In your own words, explain the differences regarding doubt among the Greeks, Romans, Jews, and Christians. Do not merely state which different doubts that they held.
- Based upon the brief description of how we have come to know Jesus’ life (page 176), what doubts might one have concerning that life? Include several observations.
- Explain the relationship between belief and doubt in early Christianity, based upon Hecht’s account of Jesus’ life on pages 177 (bottom) forward.
- What made Gnosticism’s central tenets (which was part of Christianity for centuries) the most extreme form of doubt encountered yet in the text?
- How could atheists put Gnostic arguments to good use?
- How did Augustine—one of Christianity’s greatest writers—make doubt an essential part of the Christian experience?
- Why could Christianity not escape “the problem of doubt” from the very beginning?
- What philosophical conclusion did Augustine reach through doubt?
Unit 4: Medieval Doubt Reading assignment: chapter 6, Muslims to Jews to Christians , pages 216-263. ( Skip the section titled “The First Rabbi on the Moon” (pages 239-250). Due Monday March 16, 2009 8 questions x 11 points each = 88 points possible.
- Review the paragraph at the bottom of page 220 that begins with the sentence: “Over the course of the ninth century the Arab world began a spectacular program of translation.” Why did the “program of translation” of Greek philosophical works into Arabic eventually lead many to question traditional Muslim religious ideas?
- The Faylasufs considered themselves to believe in Islam. Why were they considered to be unbelievers by some?
- In what way is the question (on page 223), “Why are there catastrophes, epidemics, if God is good?” an expression of doubt?
- Explain Ibn al-Rawandi’s question, “If you cannot trust the great multitude of Jews and Christians to get the facts right, why should one trust the handful of Muhammad’s followers who passed down the Muslim tradition?” in general terms. In other words, without using the terms “Muslim”, “Christian”, or “Jew”, explain what this question’s importance is.
- Defend whether you think Al-Razi or Ibn al-Rawandi was the more radical thinker (pages 225-230). It is important that explain precisely why one was a more radical thinker than the other.
- Al-Ghazzali (pp. 233-237) is seen by many to be the most radical doubter of the Islamic middle ages, despite being a deep believer in God at the end of his life. In what sense was al-Ghazzali a doubter?
- What is the relationship among Aristotle’s writings, the creation and growth of universities, and doubt in the Middle Ages?
- Contrary to what many scholars believe, Hecht says that there was a lot of very real doubt about religious ideas in the Middle Ages (13th^ and 14th^ Centuries). What evidence does she offer to support this point? Give specific examples.
Unit 6: Enlightenment Doubt Reading assignment: chapter 8, Revolutions in the Authority of Reason , pages 315-
Due Monday April 20, 2009 7 questions x 13 points each = 91 points possible.
1. Descartes (pronounced day-CART) is one of the most important philosophers in the Western tradition. Even so, his ideas have received much criticism. Focusing on page 317, the paragraph that begins, “He then claims…”, explain some possible flaws in Descartes’ reasoning. 2. From pages 319-322, Hecht discusses one of the 17th^ Century’s most radical thinkers: Spinoza. What in this section could lead you to believe that Spinoza was an atheist, other than direct statements by his contemporaries? 3. The section on Pierre Bayle beginning on the bottom of pages 327 and ending on page 332 is very interesting. Someday, you should try to learn more about Bayle and his place in intellectual history. For now, I ask you to consider Bayle’s question of “whether all philosophers end up as atheists” (page 331). You have now read enough to answer this question: Does philosophy generally lead to atheism? Defend your position. 4. What did Diderot and Voltaire have in common? 5. What is the point of Hume’s rhetorical question on page 348: “Are there any marks [signs] of a distributive [widespread / divine] justice in the world?” 6. D’Holbach’s statement on page 353 is stronger than anything we have yet encountered in this book. Instead of saying that philosophers don’t need God to explain life, he attacks common Christian ideas about what God is like. What is the purpose of pointing out God’s own inconsistencies? In other words, how do D’Holbach’s comments benefit the atheistic position? 7. Read the section “Franklin, Paine, Jefferson, and Adams” on pages 355-362 and list all the arguments or reasons in favor of doubt that you can find. Make sure that you put your answers in your own words.
Unit 7: Doubt in the Age of Science Reading assignment: chapter 9, Freethinking in the Age of Science and Reform , pages 371-427. Due Monday May 4, 2009 7 questions x 13 points each = 91 points possible.
1. Read “Mendelssohn’s Daughters” (pages 373-380). Defend the thesis that Reform Judaism was a movement about doubt and not merely about religious reform. 2. How were the doubts of those mentioned in “Ringlets and Beards” related to questions of democracy and personal freedom? In other words, how did this new doubt take on a social dimension beyond its normally philosophical dimensions? 3. Of these three definitions of pessimism: a. the tendency to see, anticipate, or emphasize only bad or undesirable outcomes, results, conditions, problems, etc.: His pessimism about the future of our country depresses me. b. the doctrine that the existing world is the worst of all possible worlds, or that all things naturally tend to evil. c. the belief that the evil and pain in the world are not compensated for by goodness and happiness. (Definitions from www.dictionary.com) Which one best fits Schopenhauer? Defend your answer. 4. Why do you think that the idea that the mind and the brain are the same thing is so strongly associated with atheism? (See, for example, page 404 where Darwin avoids the controversial topic). 5. Explain why evolutionism was so important in the history of doubt. 6. The section titled “The Secular State” holds much information that seems disconnected. But the theme is that doubt played a big role in social reform. Explain how doubt, atheism, and agnosticism caused social reform/change. It is not possible to cover all of the topics in this section, so please choose the most salient and important ones. 7. The British poet Shelley is one of the most important figures in the history of doubt. Using the four page introduction to his thought that Hecht provides, please evaluate Shelley’s ideas and arguments.
