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TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
MEANING AND ROLE OF COMMUNICATION
The word communication is used to mean speaking or writing or sending a message to another person. Communication is really much more than that. It involves ensuring that your message reaches the target audience and that the receiver understands and responds to the message appropriately. Communication is an important aspect of behaviour; human communication is affected by all factors that influence human behaviour.
GENERAL DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION
Communication comes from the Latin wordcommunicare, which means “to make common” or “to
share.” Communication is defined as the process of using messages to generate meaning (Judy Pearson, 2008). Communication is considered a process because it is an activity, an exchange, or a
set of behaviours —not an unchanging product. It is an activity in which you participate. David Berlo
(1960), a pioneer in the field of communication, probably provided the clearest statement about communication as a process: “If we accept the concept of process, we view events and relationships as dynamic, on-going, ever changing, continuous. When we label something as a process, we also mean that it does not have a beginning, an end, a fixed sequence of events. It is not static, at rest. It is moving. The ingredients within a process interact; each affects all the others.
Working definition
Communication is the process of transmitting information and meaning from one individual or organisation to another by means of mutually understandable symbols. The crucial element is meaning. Communication has as its central objective the transmission of meaning. The process of communication is successful only when the receiver understands an idea as the sender intended it. Both parties must agree not only on the information transmitted but also on the meaning of that information.
In order to transfer an idea, we must use symbols (words, signs, pictures, sounds) which stand for the idea. The symbols must be understood by the person or persons with whom we intend to communicate. Both must assign the same meaning to the symbols used; otherwise, there is miscommunication.
ROLE/ PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION
- Managing the human resource. Communication is the tool with which we exercise influence on others, bring about changes in the attitudes and views of our associates, motivate them and establish and maintain relations with them. The primary element in the skills of management is competence in communication.
- Communication is central to the success of everything that we do in an organisations (objectives); our family, school/college, office, hobby group, community group, our city/town are the organisations in which we live and act. Our activities succeed or fail, and our goals are achieved or not achieved, according to our ability to communicate effectively with other members.
- Building positive interpersonal relation. Communication plays a foundational role in the development of any healthy interpersonal relationship. It can strengthen a mutual sense of commitment; it also helps to bridge the gap between people who have misunderstandings. Indeed, communication plays a critical role in all phases of interpersonal relations, from creating a relationship to maintenance of relationships.
- Communication is the glue that holds an organisation together, whatever its business or its size (creates unity and harmony). Without communication an organisation cannot function at all. Without effective communication, information cannot be collected, processed, or exchanged; words and data would remain isolated facts. With effective communication, multinational organisations which are spread all over the world can function like a single unit.
- Communication enables an individual to express ideas thoughts and feelings effectively in writing and in speech. The most important foundation skill for anyone in the new world of work is the ability to communicate; being able to express your ideas effectively.
- Communication helps in team building and team-work. Owing to advances in information technology, companies downsize and decentralize, and work is increasingly carried out by teams. Team members must be able to work together to identify problems, analyse alternatives, and recommend solutions. They must be able to communicate their ideas persuasively to others. Ability to work well in teams, to manage your subordinates and your relationships with seniors, customers and colleagues, depends on your communication skill.
- Marketing the products and services. Communication in the form of advertisement and public relations is needed in order to inform the public and to persuade potential customers to buy the products. Production of goods is of no use if potential buyers have no information about the product. Communicating to the public about the product is the essence of business.
- Delegation of work horizontally and vertically.
- Transacting business: through internal and external communication.
- Building positive public relations
ESSENTIALS/PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Communication is effective only when both the sender and the receiver are focussed on the act of communication. While the sender must sharpen and improve skills of speaking and writing, the receiver must improve skills of listening and reading. The qualities of communication which the sender must achieve are called the C's of Communication because most of them begin with the letter C.
Cs of Good Communication
- Correctness A letter must be correct in every respect: (i) In spelling, grammar, pronunciation, and use of language. Incorrect language spoils the message, distracts the receiver's attention, and creates a poor impression of the sender; it may also convey a wrong meaning. All spellings must be checked; spelling of names must be checked with extra care. Most people are offended if their name is wrongly spelt or pronounced. There must be consistency in the use of numbers, units of measure, technical terms, abbreviations, hyphens, grammar, spelling, punctuation, and capitalisation. American and English spelling vary. Hyphenation and punctuation and capitalisation do not have absolutely fixed rules. Whatever you decide on, be consistent throughout the document. (ii) In appearance and form of layout. Poor and untidy appearance, with typing mistakes corrected in ink, uneven spacing or carelessness in the layout, creates a poor impression of the company's efficiency in handling its work. Appearance depends on placing the parts of layout correctly on the letterhead, even spacing between letters, words, lines and parts of layout, and having proper margins on all sides. Similarly, shabby appearance of the speaker and lack of attention to body language creates a bad impression. (iii) In the information conveyed correct and accurate. Communicating wrong or incomplete information is the most harmful thing; it leads to waste of time in making corrections and will lead to loss of goodwill and loss of business. All dates and days, time, numbers and facts must be in agreement. Nothing is more confusing than mismatched information.
Courtesy is consideration for other people's feelings. It is seen in an individual's behaviour with others. A well-mannered and courteous person shows consideration and thought for others. In a letter, the style, the manner and the choice of words reflect the courtesy of the writer. Some simple rules for courtesy are:
(i) Use the courtesy wordsplease, thank you, excuse me andsorry as the situation requires.
(ii) Express appropriate feeling according to the situation. For example, sympathy when someone suffers, good wishes when someone begins something new, and congratulation when someone achieves something. (iii) Make the other person feel comfortable. This is an important factor of courtesy. Care and consideration for the reader is reflected in the letter. The opening sentence itself shows the courtesy of the writer:
• We appreciate your promptness in sending the goods.
• Thank you for sending your quotation so promptly.
• We are sorry to learn that you were inconvenienced.
Requests must also be made courteously:
• We would appreciate it very much if you could send your cheque within three days of receiving
our bill.
• Will you please look into the matter at once?
(iv) Be attentive and prompt in responding. Every message, written or oral should be answered within twenty-four hours. If it is a letter of complaint, the response should be immediate; a courteous company makes a phone call or sends a fax message immediately on receiving a complaint or hearing about a problem. Everyone appreciates prompt attention. (v) Let the tone, the choice of words and the style of the message reflect your consideration for the feelings and needs of the receiver. This is particularly important if the message to be 'conveyed is likely to be unpleasant for the reader. A courteous letter has the best chance of getting a favourable response. Seeing the situation as the reader sees it, and taking care of his/ her needs, is courtesy. You must have an awareness of how the words sound to the receiver.
- Completeness The message communicated should be complete with all necessary details and information given to enable proper understanding and response by the receiver.
ROLE OF ICT IN COMMUNICATION
As depicted here, ICT involves the use of computer and internet in communication, including the internet enabled mobile phone.
Effects of Communication Technology on Business Productivity
- Business productivity has increased dramatically with mobile communication tools. The mobile telephone and the mobile PC have freed the business person from the desk and made it possible to work from anywhere, anytime. With instant messaging, the capabilities of communication have become even more powerful. Regular Instant Messaging users have increased the number of people they contact and the frequency of such contacts, while decreasing the number of e- mail and phone calls they initiated.
- It builds customer and partner relationships. Clients and business partners get instant access to the company contacts they need, right when they need them. They do not have to waste time waiting for the operator or the EPBX system to put them through to the person they need to talk to.
- It increases employee productivity since on-the-spot responses means that work gets done faster and more efficiently, right from your desktop.
- It increases flexibility and decreases downtime. There is no need to spend time just waiting for information to be located and transmitted by some other person. Direct access to the needed information means ability to take decisions on the spot. Within the organisation, rigid and time
consuming procedures of getting information through the organisational channels can be avoided. Using wireless connectivity gives users more flexibility to work from a variety of locations, resulting in productivity gains and efficiency savings. With instant messaging it is possible to reply to urgent queries, eliminate the need to make copies, eliminate travel in many
cases. Productivity gains are measured by theamount of additional time available that is used
to perform business tasks.
- An important development is the portability of the cellular telephone and of the laptop computer, so that an individual has the power to contact anyone at any location from any location. The instrument is no longer tied to the transmitting equipment because of developments in wireless technology combined with telephone for the cellular (mobile) telephone.
- The laptop and other portable computers and the mobile telephone have freed the person from the office and the desk.
- The mobile telephone has acquired a large number of capabilities besides transmission of voice; it has become capable of storage.
- Data which might be needed at important meetings at a faraway location can be carried in compressed form in a mobile telephone, a laptop computer, palmtop computer or pocket computer. This data can be in the form of text, graphics or voice and sounds.
- The instrument is also capable of taking instant pictures and storing or transmitting them; these can then be transferred to other instruments like the desktop computer.
- It allows access to the internet, thus making information search possible from any location. The instrument allows the user to carry out some editing of the stored data.
- Ability to hold one-on-one conferences online and hold "virtual meetings" where others can join in.
- Offers opportunity for online marketing and online business transactions. Employees and customers can discuss sales deals on-the-spot.
- Information communication is fast, enabling immediate answers to urgent questions and staying in close touch with employees who are on the road. The management can also send personal, timely congratulatory notes to boost staff morale.
- It has capacity for mass storage of information. All data about the organisation can be located in one place.
- It enables quick and ready access to information from many sources at any time.
- Provides reprographic services in communication.
- Enables social networking through the social media.
Challenges posed by the use of ICT in communication
- Increase in cyber-crime.
- Internet fluctuations.
- High cost of purchasing and installing communication gadgets.
- Proper usage of ICT needs technical knowledge and skills.
- Mobile phone and social media have led to spread of fake news, hatred and defation.
(sound). You can give a hug (touch). You can wink an eye (sight). You can send cookies that you baked (taste). Or you can deliver a dozen roses (smell). You can creatively select the channels of communication to productively communicate your message.
- Context/Environment All communication occurs within a certain context. The context is made up of the physical surroundings, the occasion in which the communication occurs, the time, the number of people present, noise level, and many other variables that can influence and affect the encoding and decoding of messages. The context plays an important role in the communication process.
- Feedback The receiver also feels a reaction to the message; this reaction may be conscious or unconscious; it may cause some change in the receiver's facial expression. It definitely leads the receiver to think. The receiver may take some action, if required. He may also reply to the message. The response and/or reply is feedback. Receiver's functions complete one cycle of the process of communication.
- Goal/Purpose is the sender's reason for communicating, the desired result of the communication
STAGES OF COMMUNICATION
- The sender conceptualises and encodes the message.
- The sender chooses the channel and sends the message to the receiver
- The receiver receives and decodes the message.
- The receiver chooses the channel and sends the feedback.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATI0N Commination is not always successful. Several things can prevent the message from reaching ' the intended recipient or from "having the desired effect on the recipient.
- Physical Barriers Obstacles that prevent a message from reaching the intended recipient may be outside and beyond the control of the persons concerned. Some can be controlled by the management; some cannot be controlled because they are in the environment. (a) Defects in the Medium Defects in the devices used for transmitting messages are external, and usually not within the control of the parties engaged in communication. The telephone, the postal system, the courier service, or electronic media may fail. Messages can get delayed, distorted and even lost while being transmitted. A partial failure of the mechanical equipment is more harmful than a total failure because a partial failure may carry an incomplete or distorted message. A fax message can be wrongly delivered as a wrong number can get dialled on the telephone. The printout may not be clear at all. It is advisable to call up and check that the fax has been received. (b) Noise Noise is any disturbance which occurs in the transmission process. In face-to face communication which is carried by air vibration, the air may be disturbed by noise such as traffic, factory work, or people talking. In a factory, oral communication is very difficult because of the noise of the machines. Organisations that can afford sound-proof rooms can overcome this barrier to some extent. (c) Information Overload When there is too much information, some of it is blocked in transit and may not reach the intended audience. Advertising and sales information is an example of overload; so much communication about products floats through so many media that a good deal of it-does not reach the potential buyer.
- Semantic and Language Barriers Semantic means pertaining to or arising from the different meanings of words or other symbols. First of all, many words have multiple meanings. Just look into a good dictionary and see how many meanings you can find for some commonly used words like "charge", "spring", "check", "suit", "ring".
The meaning that comes to your mind first depends on your occupation ("charge" may mean electrical charge to a engineering student, but fee/rent to a commerce student).
Words like "minute" and "wind" are pronounced in two different ways to mean two entirely different things. Some words like "present", "transfer", "record" are used as verb and as noun with a difference in stress in speaking, but no difference in spelling. A person may be present at a function and receive a present (stress on pre-), and present (stress on -sent) some thoughts on the budget. Similar sounding words like "access" and "excess", "flour" and "flower", "cite", "site" and "sight" can cause misunderstanding in speech. Many people confuse "week" and "weak," "steal' and "steel" in writing.
Emotional and cultural attitudes towards something can evoke different responses in people; for example, "dog" will evoke responses according to a person's past experience with the animal as well as cultural attitudes towards the animal.
Phrases can be tricky; 'a red and a blue carpet' signifies two carpets: one red and one blue. 'A red and blue carpet' is one carpet in two colours. Sentences can convey entirely different meanings depending
on how they are spoken. Consider the sentence,"What can I do for you?" It means something different
with every shift of emphasis from one word to another in oral communication.
Technical terms can also be a barrier to communication when used with an audience who are not members of that profession. Often, these words have other meanings in ordinary language, and are differently understood by people who do not belong to that occupational group. Consider the new meanings given to ordinary words by computer technology such as "mouse".
More importantly, semantic barriers arise because words mean different things to different persons. It is' said, "meaning is in people, not in words." Age, profession, education, cultural background and many other factors influence the meaning we give to words.
A dialect for example would identify a person geographically and identically certain slang would reveal the cultural or group orientation of the persons speaking it. The same are then barriers, if spoken in situations and with people, who may not be able to relate to them.
- Organisational Barriers Editing and filtering: A great deal of loss of information occurs as a message moves from senior management to lower levels. Each person through whom it passes edits it, filters it, and simplifies it for the understanding and needs of the next person who is to receive it. Loss or distortion of information as it moves downward may be caused by misinterpretation, lack of understanding, and neglect of messages by some of the members of the organisation.
Loss of information also occurs as messages move from subordinates to higher levels of authority. Messages are filtered at every level. There may be deliberate suppression of information out of self- interest and jealousy; a supervisor may suppress or change a good suggestion from a subordinate so as to take the credit personally; a senior officer may prevent information about discontent in the department from reaching the manager because it reflects on his/her human relations skills.
Deliberate withholding of information from peers who are perceived as rivals becomes a barrier in horizontal communication. A common barrier to horizontal communication is organisational politics; one manager may withhold information from another since possession of information usually has benefits and advantages.
Over-dependence on written communication: Too much dependence on written communication is one of the reasons for communication gaps. Circulars, bulletins, notices and even letters are not always read carefully. Many employees are unable to read and understand long messages. Even better
(g) Resistance to Change: Some people strongly resist new ideas which are against their established opinions or traditions or social customs. They may avoid new ideas because they feel insecure or afraid of changes in methods or situations. (h) Closed Mind: Limited intellectual background, limited reading and narrow interests can cause a person's mind to be narrow and limits the ability to take in new ideas. Young employees with bright ideas and fresh approach feel frustrated by the closed mind of the senior people in an organisation. (i) Poor Communication Skills: Lack of skill in writing and in speaking prevents a person from framing the message properly. Oral communication can be handicapped by a number of problems; nervousness in facing an audience may affect a person's clarity in speaking. Even excitement about an achievement or a new idea may make a person's speech incoherent. Lack of skill in reading and in listening is also common. (j) State of Health: Pain or fever certainly makes a person disinclined to engage in communication; but even if the general state of health is poor, communicating ability is reduced. The mind is not sufficiently alert; there will be gaps in attention while reading or listening; there is lack of energy to think clearly and to find the right words. Perception is low when the state of health is poor. Emotions, which play an important part in successful communication, are easily disturbed. (k) Experiential barriers The difficulty in understanding matters not personally experienced. Our past experience may also negatively influence our perception and understanding related to those experiences. (l) Perceptual barriers The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world differently. The selectivity/exposure filters that are developed on the basis of experience or lack of it play their part. A bad experience would perceptually block out unpleasant things. This could be in the shape of avoiding it and if that is not possible by altering the behaviours i.e., response types in different ways. Similarly, retention filters out things that feel good, and gives the tendency to forget those things that are painful. (m) Emotional barriers It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust, and suspicion. The roots of our emotional mistrust of others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said to others. "Don't speak until you're spoken to"; "Children should be seen and not heard". As a result, many people hold back from communicating their thoughts and feelings to others because they feel vulnerable. While some caution may be wise in certain relationships, excessive fear of what others might think of us can stunt our development into effective communicators and our ability to form meaningful relationships. Emotions influence both our speech and our listening. In many cases emotions may stop us from saying many things and in other instance may make us say things that we never wanted to say. (n) Hidden agendas Hidden Agendas serve two functions: (i) Individual’s strategy for poor self-esteem. This is mostly in cases where the personality is a submissive one. In such cases the communication can turn sly and manipulative as one does not have the courage to communicate openly. This is particularly the case as one is always apprehensive of others differing point of view and is fearful of annoying the other person, not being confident of handling a communication situation if there was one requiring assertive handling. (ii) Promote ulterior motives and needs. If a person is known to promote one’s ulterior motives and needs either by being aggressive or by being covertly submissive; sooner or later it would become a major communication barrier. It generally creates a win-lose situation and does not work in establishing trust, which is a basic premise for effective and purposeful communication. (o) Stereotypes Stereotypes are mental images and expectations. Stereotypes provide a shortcut to form an opinion of someone. We tend to get opinionated sooner or later and it becomes difficult to
change opinions. Opinions give us a base to relate to others. Humans are very diverse by nature whereas stereotyping them in categories with specific characteristics is very common and therefore it also becomes one of the most common barriers to communication. (p) Defensiveness: If we feel threatened by a message, we become defensive and respond in such ways that reduce understanding. This is a particularly harmful barrier in handling complaints and grievances and in resolving conflicts.
OVERCOMING BARRIERS
(i) Persons in positions of authority, as well as subordinates, can be helped to overcome these barriers by training in effective communication. Periodical review and reorganisation of communication networks is also needed to ensure that information reaches people in time. (ii) Health centres: Many organisations provide medical aid, gymnasiums and recreation for the staff in an effort to keep down stress levels. Regulations like compulsory vacation after a certain number of months/years are also meant to ensure that employees avoid stress and fatigue. (iii) You have to cultivate all the communication skills including getting feedback and non-verbal communication. (iv)The Management should ensure the channels must be kept in good working condition; the intercoms, notice-boards, information on meetings must be kept up-to-date. Many companies which can afford it, maintain soundproof rooms for meetings and take steps to reduce the noise level in the office. (v) Semantic and language barriers can be overcome only by being careful with the use of language, and by using words which have clear meaning, by using short and simple sentences, and also by using visual aid whenever possible. Whenever possible, feedback must be got and given to ensure that there is common understanding of a message. (vi)Personal barriers can be overcome only "by making a conscious effort, and by training for better communication. (vii) To reduce cultural barriers, it is better not to assume similarity with those from other cultures until you are sure. It is safer to assume difference till you are sure of similarity. Depend on description rather than evaluation or interpretation; persons from different cultures evaluate and interpret differently.
may pass the information to anybody around him who may be interested to listen. (d) Cluster: in this case the person who has the information passes it to selected individuals who also pass it on to selected individuals. In every organisation, some people have good liaison with other persons.
Informal communication is generally considered to be any interaction that does not generally follow the formal structure of the organization but emerges out of natural social interaction among organization members. Whereas formal communication consists of messages the organization recognizes as official, informal messages do not follow official lines. The concept of emergent organizational networks represents the informal, naturally occurring patterns of communication relationships in organizations (Susskind, Schwartz, Richards, & Johnson, 2005).
Moreover, effective workplace communicators understand the nature of both formal and informal communication. Managers who take time to develop and listen to sources of informal information are better equipped to understand employees’ attitudes and concerns. When entering an organization, such as when you start your first job, asking other employees about communication practices is smart because you not only discover formal procedures but also make contact for informal sources of information.
(c) Intrapersonal vs interpersonal communication
Intrapersonal Communication Intrapersonal communication is the communication that occurs within your own mind. Intrapersonal communication occurs, when you evaluate or examine the interaction that occurs between yourself and others, but it is not limited to such situations. This form of communication occurs before and during other forms of communication as well. For instance, you might argue with yourself during a conversation in which someone asks you to do something you don’t really want to do: Before you accept or decline, you mull over the alternatives in your mind. Intrapersonal communication also includes such activities as solving problems internally, resolving internal conflict, planning for the future, and evaluating yourself and your relationships with others.
Interpersonal Communications Interpersonal communication is the process of using messages to generate meaning between at least two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening. Like intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication occurs for a variety of reasons: to solve problems, to resolve conflicts, to share information, to improve perceptions of oneself, or to fulfil social needs, such as the need to belong or to be loved. Through our interpersonal communication, we are able to establish relationships with others that include friendships and romantic relationships. Dyadic and small-group communications are two subsets of interpersonal communication. Dyadic communication is simply two-person communication, such as interviews with an employer or a teacher; talks with a parent, spouse, or child; and interactions among strangers, acquaintances, and friends. Small-group communication is the process of using messages to generate meaning in a small group of people (Brilhart & Galanes, 1998). Small-group communication occurs in families, work groups, support groups, religious groups, and study groups.
TOPIC 4: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION: VERBAL AND NONVERBAL
The communication process can take any of the four forms—verbal and nonverbal. Both forms usually operate together in the majority of messages you send and receive. Spoken or oral and written are both forms of verbal communication while nonverbal consists of visual and audio-visual.
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
- Oral
- Written
- Visual
- Audio visual
Types of verbal communication
- Face to face communication: involves the speaker and the listener interacting face to face such as in dyadic, small group or public speaking.
- Telephone conversation: involve two people interacting by use of telephone though it is possible for a small group by means of teleconferencing.
- The radio: makes it possible to speak to a large number of people at the same time.
- Written communication: involves use of written forms of communication such as letters, memos, reports, circulars, etc.
Spoken and Written Communication Oral communication is more natural and immediate; we speak to communicate in natural and informal situations. We also speak in formal and official situations such as making a presentation or taking an interview when the target audience is present. Written communication has to be used when the other person is not present and is not available on the telephone. Long and complex messages are best conveyed in writing.
Attributes/Features of Spoken and Written Communication
Oral and written communications have different attributes which have to be taken into account in choosing which one to use in a particular situation. (i) Speed: Written communication is slower in preparation, in conveyance and in reception; it takes more time to draft, type, dispatch, and to receive and read a letter than it takes to speak, and to hear, listen to, and understand an oral message. Feedback is also slower in written communication. (ii) Record: Written communication serves as a record and can be used for future reference. It is a documentary proof, and can be used as legal evidence. Oral communication may be taped for later ' reference, but the Authenticity of the voice can be questioned; moreover, tapes can be edited and the message distorted. Written records and documents are more reliable and acceptable. (iii) Precision and accuracy: Written communication is more precise and accurate than oral. Choice of precise words is possible in written communication because the writer has the time to look for suitable words and phrases, and to revise the draft, if necessary. Accuracy is necessary in written communication because the receiver is not present to ask for clarification. In oral communication, it is not always possible to be so precise in the choice of words. There is also no time to seek and consider words while speaking; however, the receiver can seek clarification on the spot. Besides, oral communication has the support of vocal ' tone and gestures and expressions which enrich the meaning of the words. (iv) Length: A written message is usually shorter than an oral communication. The situation of oral communication requires some preliminary and closing remarks, while for written messages there are standard formats for opening and closing which can keep the message short. (v) Expense: Written communication requires stationery, preparation, and transmission, all of which cost money. Oral communication can also cost a great deal since it requires simultaneous presence and attention of the two parties, and getting together costs money. Costs will depend on the availability of the required person(s) at the particular place.
Posture—the way you position and move your body—can communicate a great deal about you. For example, leaning toward or leaning away from someone in conversation can convey your degree of interest, attentiveness, or involvement. Turning your back or standing to leave can convey a lack of interest or signal the end to the conversation. Gestures are any movement of the hands, fingers, or arms. Open arms can signify honesty and openness. Facial expressions are the arrangement of facial muscles to communicate messages. They include the mouth, cheeks, eyes, eyelids, eyebrows, forehead, nose, and chin. The face is probably the most observed part of the body when we communicate with others, and this is not without reason. Our face usually communicates our internal, emotional experience. Eye contact can also communicate several different types of messages. Direct eye contact in our culture can communicate involvement, intimidation, and intimacy. A diverted or downcast gaze communicates a different message. Our eyes can also communicate dominance and submission. We can “stare someone down” with a prolonged gaze that is not returned by the other person, or we can avoid or break eye contact when talking with a superior, such as a boss or supervisor.
- Paralanguage Paralanguage is how we speak. Paralanguage includes pitch, volume, rate, and quality. Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of our voice. The pitch of our voice is primarily determined by the physical length and thickness of our vocal chords, but it can rise if we are frightened, anxious, or excited, and it can lower if we are attempting to sound more powerful or authoritative. Volume refers to the relative softness or loudness of our voice. We often speak in a characteristic volume; some individuals talk loudly, whereas others talk in almost a whisper. We can also adjust our volume to meet the requirements of the communication setting we are in. In a noisy, crowded room we raise our volume and speak above the other voices, whereas during a movie or quiet dinner we lower our voice. Rate is how fast or slow we speak. People tend to have their own personal rate of speech. Some speak fast, others slow. We tend to increase our rate of speech when we’re excited, frightened, or nervous, and we tend to decrease our rate of speech when we’re uncertain, thoughtful, and sad. Quality refers to the overall sound of our voice. Each human voice has a distinctive tone. The quality of one’s voice may be characterized as soothing, harsh, strident, or calm. We each have a distinctive quality to the way we sound. Can you recall your mother’s voice? Your father’s voice? Your best friend’s voice? Often, when answering the telephone, we immediately recognize the caller by his or her voice quality.
- Personal Presentation Our clothing is one of the most obvious and public displays of who we are and what we want to communicate to others. The primary consideration is popularity, attractiveness, and status. We can create a variety of public images simply by the clothing we wear. Our grooming can also reflect and communicate messages to the world. The length and style of our hair, bathing routines, makeup, cologne and perfume, finger and toenail painting (even for men these days), and many other grooming habits communicate a great deal about who we are and how we want to be perceived. Touching is the most intimate form of nonverbal communication behaviour. Touching behaviour, or haptics, as it is called by social scientists, includes all behaviour that involves the skin. Primarily, touching behaviour deals with our hands and how we use them to communicate.
- Proxemics Proxemics, the study of our use of space, and was first introduced by anthropologist Edward Hall in
his bookThe Hidden Dimension. By observing conversations between people, Hall discovered that
our personal space could be broken down into four zones or distances:
✦ Intimate distance (0 to 18 inches) is reserved for intimate activities include making love, holding intimate or confidential conversations, hugging, kissing, and snuggling. This is often referred to as our “personal bubble.” Only our most intimate relationships are permitted into this area. If an uninvited person invades our personal bubble, whether it’s a stranger sitting next to us on an empty bench or
a person getting too close for comfort during a conversation, we usually move away slightly to maintain our intimate distance.
✦ Personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet) is used for most conversations with family, friends, and most acquaintances. ✦ Social distance (4 to 12 feet) is the distance we feel most comfortable with transacting business, sitting during committee meetings, and interacting with the hotel clerk, the supermarket cashier, or the police officer giving us a ticket.
✦ Public distance (12 to 25 feet) is used for public ceremonies, speeches, large group meetings, and class lectures. If the distance between people is greater than 25 feet, communication is often limited to shouting and exaggerated nonverbal gestures. The distance of your personal space changes depending on the setting, the people involved, and how you are feeling at the moment. Cultural factors also play an important role in determining proxemic distancing and personal comfort.
- Sign language Sign language is a form of non-verbal communication commonly used for the hearing impaired. It involves the use of hands to make symbolic gestures which have specific meanings. Sign language is taught in formal learning institutions for communication with the hearing impaired such as the use of braille. Communicating using sign language for the visually impaired may take the form of: Finger spelling Signing Exact English (SEE) Kenya Sign Language (KSL) NB: find out what the three concepts entail.
Importance of nonverbal communication
(a) Non-verbal methods have almost instant effect because of quicker grasp by the receiver. Speed in conveyance and response makes non-verbal methods extremely useful in critical situations like traffic signs and signals. (b) Visual non-verbal methods aid verbal communication; maps, charts and graphs are necessary for conveying information or plans related to geography, locations, data, and most of the sciences. A large amount of complex data can be presented in a compact form; one page can convey information that would need several pages of words. It makes information available conveniently, at a glance for comparisons. (c) Response to visuals and plain sounds is more powerful than to language. A cry of agony arouses stronger response than a sad story; a film is more effective than a written story. TV news is more interesting than on radio. (d) It is the best method to convey information to illiterate people. Containers of poisons are marked with a skull and cross-bones as a warning; illiterate drivers manage with the non-verbal traffic signals. Films are used to explain processes to people who may not follow oral explanations easily. Non- verbal communication can overcome the barrier of language. (e) Sign language helps the hearing impaired to communicate, learn and be able to work like any other physically normal persons.
Functions of non-verbal communication
a) Message reinforcement or complementation of verbal messages, for example, a warm welcome and a firm handshake. b) Negation of the verbal message. c) Message substitution, i.e. using nonverbal without verbal communication such as pointing. d) Message accentuation/intensification i.e. smiling as you say, “It is nice to meet you.” e) Message regulation, i.e. lowering the voice to mark the end of a turn or eye contact to nominate the next speaker.
(iii) Network and airwave failure may hinder communication process over telephone, internet, radio and television. (iv) Illiteracy may hinder the use of communication gadgets since it need a good operating knowledge such the use of computer. (v) Breakdown of communication gadgets; computers, cameras, slide projectors, video and radio gadget may break down when they are needed for use. (vi) Lack of electric power may hinder use of electronic communication gadgets such as computers, projectors, slide projectors and television. (vii) Language barrier: most mass media broadcast in official languages which many people may not understand.
Ways of overcoming the barriers to visual and audio visual communication
(i) In a business organisation, the management should always ensure the audio, visual and audio visual channels are always working properly. (ii) The management should always ensure that networks and airwave receptions are adequate for proper communication. (iii) Always ensure that there is electricity or battery power and a proper back-up before beginning to use audio, visual and audio visual communication gadgets. (iv) Your choice of medium should be dictated by the literacy level, physical location and technological capacity of the receiver. (v) The choice of language should always depend on the linguistic knowledge and competence of your receiver. (vi) Mass media should broadcast in a variety of languages; the availability of channels broadcasting in local languages ensures this.
TOPIC 5: CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
Channel is the medium that carries the message from the source to the target audience. All channels can be classified as written, face to face to face, electronic and non-verbal.
Choice of Communication Medium You need to consider several aspects in choosing a medium for a particular message. The main aspects are:
a) The type of audience you want to reach. b) The speed with which the message should be conveyed: The pressure of time and the distance between the sender and the receiver influence the choice of the medium. Some media are faster and can travel distances rapidly, like the telephone, the fax and the e- mail; these media also have the advantage of being person to person. c) Need for confidentiality of the message is an important consideration. The choice will certainly be influenced by requirement of secrecy; all media do not ensure the same secrecy of the message. Messages like warning memo, report on a customer's credit standing, demand for overdue payment, and so on, are confidential. They cannot be sent by media like telegram or telex or fax even if they are urgent. d) Need for accuracy in transmission is not the same for all messages. If the content to be transmitted is mainly data, you make the choice for accuracy and speed in transmitting. e) Need for reliability of the medium is an important factor. Sending a message by hand delivery is more reliable than ordinary mail; registered post is more reliable than ordinary mail. f) Cost of the medium and its relative importance and urgency. g) Availability of a particular medium to the sender and to the receiver is obviously an affecting factor. You can use only those media which both you and the intended receiver can access. You may have a fax machine but if the receiver does not have one and has no arrangements for receiving a fax message, you cannot use that medium. h) Feedback capacity of the medium: For some messages, you need immediate feedback; you have to use a medium which will enable you to get it at once, like the telephone. i) Availability of hard copy for record. j) Formality of the medium must be suitable to content of the message. A letter of congratulation is more formal and has a different effect from conveying the same message orally. k) Intensity and complexity of the message is a major factor. Many messages in an organisation have an emotional content, which influences the choice considerably; the emotional content is not carried equally by all media.
