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The Linguistic and Cultural
Influence of England on the
British Isles
British History in a Nutshell: From Prehistory
to the Middle Ages
The Stone Age
There is a theory that the first humans came from Africa and migrated to other countries, including Britain. They made pottery, much of which has been found in Spain and nearby countries. During a significant glacial period, the average temperature was cold enough to freeze the sea, allowing humans to reach Britain. The English Channel is estimated to have formed around 6000 BC due to the melting of the sea. Britain is home to many prehistoric monuments, including in Ireland, though these did not have a significant impact on actual history.
Celtic Expansion and Roman Britain
Before the Roman invasion, Britain was inhabited by Celtic tribes. The Celtic expansion occurred in the 5th century BC, spreading from central western Europe to the Balkans, northern Italy, Spain, France, Germany, and Britain. The Celtic period in Britain lasted from 700 BC to 43 AD. The Celts spoke different variants of a common language and expanded into Ireland, making it a Celtic country. The Celts were a warlike people, and women could be leaders with higher social status than in Rome. When the Romans arrived, they conquered England and Wales, although Wales was less Romanized. England was dependent on the Roman Empire, but after the Romans, Britain was conquered by the Germanic empire, which influenced the development of the English language. The Romans brought the skills of reading and writing to Britain, but Latin disappeared when the Anglo-Saxons invaded in the 5th century AD. The Romans established a Romano-British culture in the southern half of Britain, introducing Latin and Christianity. The Romans were unable to conquer Scotland, known as Caledonia, and built Hadrian's Wall to mark the border between England and Scotland.
The Germanic Invasions
The Germanic tribes that invaded Britain were the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who came from different regions of present-day Germany and Denmark. The Jutes settled in Kent, the Saxons in the south of the Thames, and the Angles in central and northern England. The Anglo-Saxon colonization effectively replaced both Latin and Celtic languages with "Englisc," the precursor to modern English. Christianity was reintroduced to Britain by St. Augustine, who converted the King of Kent and founded a monastery in Canterbury. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England were known as the Heptarchy, consisting of Mercia, Wessex, Essex, Sussex, East Anglia, Kent, and Northumbria.
The Viking Threat and the Unification of England
Between the 8th and 11th centuries, raiders and colonists from Scandinavia, primarily Danes and Norwegians, plundered the British Isles. In the 860s, the Danes mounted a full-scale invasion, and within ten years, nearly all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms fell to the invaders, except for Wessex. King Alfred the Great of Wessex defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Edington in 878 and negotiated a peace treaty, defining the Danelaw area under Danish rule. The unification of England began with the Kingdom of Wessex, and Alfred transformed it into a society prepared for war, building a navy, reorganizing the army, and establishing a system of fortified towns. In the 10th century, the Kingdom of Wessex conquered the remaining Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, and Athelstan became the first king of a unified England. During this period, Ireland and Scotland were also roughly united, likely for protection against the Vikings.
The Norman Conquest and the Rise of the
Angevin Empire
The Norman Invasion of England
In 1066, the death of King Edward the Confessor, who had no heir, led to a succession crisis in England. Three claimants to the throne emerged:
A Scandinavian prince, seeking to reclaim England's throne. Harold Godwinson, an English nobleman, who was chosen by the Witan (the royal council) to be the new king. William, Duke of Normandy, who claimed that Edward had promised him the throne and that Harold had sworn an oath to support William's claim.
system and the Domesday Book laid the foundations for a more centralized and efficient system of governance.
The Angevin kings, such as Henry II, further strengthened the power of the crown and expanded England's influence both at home and abroad. However, the succession crises that followed Henry II's reign highlighted the ongoing challenges faced by the English monarchy in this period.
The Power of the English Kings
Control over Powerful Institutions
The English kings sought to control every powerful institution, including the Church. Religion was one of the most important aspects of the era, and the Church was the richest institution in the country, even richer than the king himself. Henry II wanted to rule the Church, and when the Archbishop of Canterbury died, he persuaded the Pope to appoint his friend, Thomas Beckett, as the new Archbishop. However, Beckett did not help Henry and was forced to leave England. He eventually returned but was murdered by men sent by the king, although the king did not admit to it to avoid being excluded from the Catholic Church.
The Prince of Wales
The title of Prince of Wales became a hereditary title that is still in use today. Edward I, known as the "Hammer of the Scots," tried to rule the Scottish population.
The Decay of England in the Low Medieval
Period
The Black Death
One of the crucial factors that led to the crisis in England during the Low Medieval Period was the Black Death, a bubonic plague transmitted by rats that came to England by boats. The plague affected up to half of the population in just two years, leading to significant religious, social, and political consequences.
Religious Impacts
The plague was seen as a sign of the approaching end of the world, and it affected both the rich and the poor, though not equally. Many priests died, and half of the churches had to close, leading the population to feel the need to protect themselves without the assistance of priests. This paved the way for the rise of Protestantism, which believed in the direct approach of the population to God.
Social and Political Impacts
The fact that the majority of the population that died were from the lower classes led to a shortage of workers on the land. This empowered the remaining workers to demand better working conditions, though their rebellions were ultimately crushed by the king.
Economic Impacts
The fourteenth century was disastrous for Britain, as well as most of Europe, due to the effects of wars and plagues. The twelfth and thirteenth centuries had seen a huge development of the English economy, primarily through agriculture, but this growth began to falter by the end of the thirteenth century due to a combination of overpopulation, land shortages, and depleted soils.
The Hundred Years' War
Tensions between England and France
In 1308, Edward II married Isabella of France, the daughter of the powerful King Philip IV, in an effort to resolve the tensions between the English and French crowns. However, in 1326, the nobility, ruled by Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer, organized a rebellion and invasion of England from France.
The Hundred Years' War
The war between England and France, known as the Hundred Years' War, began in 1337 when Edward III declared war on France, claiming the right to the French Crown. The war lasted until 1453, with the English Crown losing all its possessions in France except for Calais.
Impact on Ireland
Ireland, known as the Pale, was theoretically English territory, but it was effectively nobody's land during this period.
The Erosion of the Power of the Monarch
The Deposition of Edward II
During the fourteenth century, there was a continuous struggle between the king and his nobles. In 1327, Edward II was deposed, forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Edward III, and cruelly murdered, breaking the principle that kings were neither to be killed nor deposed.
from 1405 to his fatal bout in 1413. He was succeeded by Henry V, the second English monarch from the house of Lancaster.
Henry V and the Hundred Years' War
Henry V assumed control of the country in 1413 and embarked on war with France in the ongoing Hundred Years' War. His military successes culminated in his famous victory at the Battle of Agincourt (1415) and saw him come close to conquering France. After months of negotiation with Charles VI of France, the Treaty of Troyes (1420) recognised Henry V as regent and heir apparent to the French throne, and he was subsequently married to Charles's daughter, Catherine of Valois.
Henry VI and the War of the Roses
Following Henry V's sudden and unexpected death in France two years later, he was succeeded by his infant son, Henry VI. Henry VI grew up to be simple-minded and book-loving, an unsuitable king for such a violent society. However, he was a civilised and gentle man, founding Eton College and King's College in Cambridge.
Henry VI's simple-mindedness gave way to periods of mental illness, and England was ruled by a mentally ill king who was bad at choosing advisers. This led to the discontented nobility dividing into two factions: the 'Lancastrians' who remained loyal to Henry VI, and the 'Yorkists' who supported the Duke of York. This began the series of wars for control of the throne of England, known as the War of the Roses.
The Yorkist Victory and the Rise of the Tudors
The Duke of York claimed the throne for himself in 1460, and after his death in battle, his son Edward took up the struggle and won the throne in 1461 as Edward IV. Edward IV put Henry VI into the Tower of London, but nine years later a new Lancastrian army rescued him and chased Edward IV out of the country. Edward IV returned to England in 1471 and defeated the Lancastrians, finally securing the throne.
When Edward IV died in 1483, his own two sons, Edward V and his younger brother, were put in the Tower by Richard of Gloucester, who took the crown and became King Richard III. Richard III was not popular, and in 1485 a challenger with a distant claim to royal blood, Henry Tudor, Duke of Richmond, landed in England with Breton soldiers to claim the throne. Many discontented lords, both Lancastrians and Yorkists, joined him. Henry Tudor defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth and was crowned King Henry VII, the first monarch of the House of Tudor.
Overview of the Tudor Period
The Tudor period saw the monarch's power strengthened, a transition to a modern economy, and the weakening of feudalism. This was preceded by the Black Death, subsequent outbreaks, and the Wars of the Roses.
The Tudor period also saw the consolidation of the bicameral Parliament, with increasing influence of the House of Commons. This period also witnessed the English Reformation, with the Church of England becoming independent.
Henry VII (1485-1509)
Henry VII, the first Tudor monarch, successfully restored the power and stability of the English monarchy after the civil war. He subdued the aristocracy, centralised the state machinery and bureaucracy, and supported the merchant classes. He also encouraged exploration of the seas, with John Cabot's 1497 discovery of the coast of North America.
Henry VII established dynastic relations, marrying his heir Henry VIII to the Spanish Princess Catherine of Aragon. However, the death of his first son and heir, Arthur, Prince of Wales, and the subsequent death of his wife Elizabeth of York, brought the King unrecoverable pain, and he died in 1509, succeeded by his son Henry VIII.
Henry VIII (1509-1547)
Henry VIII, the second Tudor monarch, definitely incorporated Wales within England to place England among Europe's big players. He had changing policies with Spain and France, and brought about the English Reformation in 1534, creating the separate Church of England. The causes of the Reformation included political (the need to re-marry to produce a male heir), economic (the appropriation of the Church's wealth), and religious (widespread corruption within the Church and the influence of the Devotional trend and spread of Protestant ideas from Europe).
The English Reformation under Henry VIII
and his Successors
The Reign of Henry VIII (1509-1547)
France and Spain were more powerful than England during this period. Henry VIII initially allied with Spain, but later changed sides when he was not rewarded. Henry VIII spent excessively on maintaining a magnificent court and on wars that brought little gain to England. This depleted the carefully saved money of his father. Henry VIII disliked the power of the Church in England, as it was an international organization that he could not fully control. In 1536, the English Parliament passed the "Act of Union" which incorporated Wales into England. Between 1536-1537, the Irish Parliament passed statutes referring to the Reformation that had already impacted England and Wales. In 1541, the Irish Parliament bestowed the title of "King of Ireland" on Henry VIII, and by 1547 most major figures in Ireland had accepted his supremacy.
remained under her authority, unlike politically dangerous forms of Protestantism in Europe. Elizabeth made the Church a part of the state machine, attracting both Catholics and Protestants.
Continued Religious Tensions
The struggle between Catholics and Protestants continued to endanger Elizabeth I's position for the next thirty years. The cult of the Virgin Mary was replaced by the cult of Elizabeth herself. Both Catholic France and Spain wanted to marry Elizabeth and join England to their countries, posing a danger. Catholic nobles in England wished to remove Elizabeth and replace her with the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, who was Elizabeth's closest living relative and heir.
Mary, Queen of Scots
When Mary, Queen of Scots, made enemies of some of her nobles, she escaped to the safety of England. Elizabeth I kept Mary as a prisoner for almost twenty years, finding it difficult to decide what to do with her. Elizabeth finally agreed to Mary's execution in 1587, as Mary had named Philip II of Spain as her heir, leading Spain to decide to invade England.
Elizabeth's Succession
Since Elizabeth would never name her successor, her senior adviser secretly negotiated with James VI of Scotland, Mary's son, who had a strong but unrecognized claim. Elizabeth's church is similar to the modern-day Church of England.
Elizabeth's Final Years
The Queen's health declined in the autumn of 1602, and she fell into a severe depression. Elizabeth died on 24 March 1603, and James VI of Scotland was proclaimed as James I of England.
The First English Colony
Virginia was the first English colony established during Elizabeth I's reign.
Elizabeth I vs. Mary, Queen of Scots
Comparison of the Two Queens
Mary Stuart of Scotland was a Catholic, highly intelligent, and beautiful, but also "stupid" in that she never did or said the right thing. Mary was born as the Queen of Scotland, as her father had died before her birth. Scotland and France were natural enemies of England, so they were allies. Mary spent time in France, where she married a French prince who became the King of France. After his death, she returned to Scotland, where she was a foreigner as she had spent more time in France. There was a rebellion in Scotland, and Mary was imprisoned. She escaped and sought help from her cousin, Elizabeth I, in England.
Elizabeth's Imprisonment of Mary
The Catholic Church would have put Mary on the English throne if Elizabeth did not, so Elizabeth imprisoned Mary in a palace for 8 years. Elizabeth's secret services found evidence incriminating Mary in a plot to take the English throne, and in 1587, Mary was found guilty and executed. This was the last straw for Catholic Europe, who saw Mary as a Catholic martyr, leading to the Spanish Armada's failed invasion of England in 1588.
Elizabeth's Foreign Policy
Elizabeth's foreign policy built on the work of Henry VII, encouraging merchant expansion and recognizing Spain as England's main trade rival and enemy. Elizabeth helped the Dutch Protestants by allowing their ships to use English harbors to attack Spanish ships, almost an open declaration of war on Spain. English "privateers" had been attacking Spanish ships returning from the Americas, with the treasure shared with the Queen. Philip II of Spain decided to conquer England in 1587, believing enough Catholics in England would help him, but the Spanish Armada was defeated more by bad weather than English guns.
The Stuart Dynasty
The Succession of the Stuarts
After Elizabeth's death, her cousin James VI of Scotland became James I of England, uniting the English and Scottish crowns. The Stuart period saw the consolidation of Protestantism and the new constitutional order, including the Civil War, the Republican "Commonwealth" period, and the Glorious Revolution.
Domestic Challenges
James I secured peace with Spain, which was still ruling the world even after the failure of the Armada. Domestically, the situation was not good, as he did not rely on the Parliament, and the Catholic section of the population, funded by foreign powers (Spain), rebelled against the king in the Gunpowder Plot, which aimed to assassinate the king. The English secret service, led by Guy Fawkes, stopped the Gunpowder Plot.
Dissenters and Non-Conformists
Dissenters/non-conformists were people who did not think like the majority and disagreed on something. In this century, the Protestants against the Church of England were dissenters, as they thought it was not Protestant enough, too abstract, and too close to Catholic beliefs. They were later known as non-conformists when they were people from the Church that were not completely happy with how the Church of England worked.
Quakers and Puritans
Quakers were Protestants who founded the Society of Friends (as they call their church). The Puritans were extreme Protestants who felt hatred towards the Church and were simple in their dress and non-singing in church. They tried to change the Church to make it more palatable for the Protestants, but James I did not agree with this reformation.
The Inquisition and Puritan Failure
The Inquisition made people pay a fine if they did not attend the Church regularly. The Puritans failed in the change they wanted to make in society.
Charles I (1625-1649)
Strained Relations with Parliament
Charles I was not a popular man, just like his father. It was not an easy reign for him, as he did not call the Parliament as much as the population would have liked, and he tried to rule without it, believing in the divine right of kings. He was likely suspected of being a Catholic or something close to it.
Reforms and Civil War
Charles I did reform the Church of England and reintroduced the separation between the common and the priest that had been eliminated in the last reformation of the Church when it became Protestant. The population was angry and got separated into two groups: the royalists or cavaliers, who fought for the king, and the parliamentarians, the middle and lower classes, as well as the Puritans (called roundheads for their hairstyle), who fought against the king. There was a civil war, and the king was defeated, but he refused to sign a paper giving the Parliament more power, leading to another war. Oliver Cromwell, a Puritan leader, made the king seem guilty of treason and executed him.
Interregnum (Commonwealth 1649-1660)
Oliver Cromwell's Rule
After the execution of Charles I, England did not accept the logic order of succession, and they decided to lead the country without a king but with Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell, as a Puritan, made life a living hell for the Catholics, especially in Ireland, sending a large army and causing thousands of Irish deaths. His time in power was welcomed at the beginning, but he soon had people who were against him killed, and he inserted stricter moral rules based on Puritan beliefs, closing theaters, making music illegal in churches, and banning animal fights and baiting.
The Restoration
When Cromwell died in 1658, his son Richard could not keep his father's ways, and he gave up, calling a new king: the son of Charles I, Charles II. In 1660, Charles II returned to England as the publicly accepted king, and the laws and acts of Cromwell's government were automatically cancelled. Cromwell's body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey, subjected to a posthumous execution, and his severed head was displayed on a pole outside Westminster Hall until 1685.
Restoration: Charles II (1660-1685)
Religious Toleration and Political Parties
Charles II re-established the Church of England, but Parliament limited the religious toleration he fostered. Parliament became divided into Tories and Whigs, representing different ideologies and sensibilities.
The Bill of Rights and the Act of Settlement
The Bill of Rights, passed by Parliament in 1689, further limited the power of the monarch and established the principle that the king or queen could not act without the consent of Parliament. The Act of Settlement, passed in 1701, ensured that only Protestants could inherit the British throne. It stated that if Mary II and her sister Anne died without children, the crown would pass to the descendants of Sophia of Hanover, a granddaughter of James I. The Act of Settlement has remained in force ever since, although the Stuarts made several attempts to regain the crown.
The Union of England and Scotland
After the Glorious Revolution, Scotland and Ireland did not accept the removal of James II peacefully. In 1707, the Act of Union was passed, which united the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain. The Act of Union was a significant event, as it established a single Parliament for the united kingdom, with representatives from both England and Scotland.
The War of Spanish Succession
During the reign of Queen Anne, the last Stuart monarch, Britain was involved in the War of Spanish Succession. The war was fought over the succession to the Spanish throne, with the Hapsburg and Bourbon dynasties vying for control. The Treaty of Utrecht, signed in 1713, resulted in Spain's European empire being divided, with Gibraltar and Minorca being ceded to Britain. The war also contributed to the strengthening of the two-party system in British politics, with the Tories and Whigs becoming more firmly established.
An Overview of the 18th Century in Britain
The Hanoverian Succession and the Strengthening of
Parliament
In 1714, Queen Anne Stuart died childless, leading to the Hanoverian succession as per the Act of Settlement. The new Hanoverian kings, George I and George II, were less interested in British affairs and allowed the power of Parliament to grow. This period saw the consolidation of the two-party system, with the Tories representing traditional monarchist and Anglican interests, and the Whigs supporting Protestantism and parliamentary tradition.
The figure of the Prime Minister was created, with Robert Walpole considered Britain's first PM, who remained a dominant political leader for over 20 years. Walpole strengthened the power of the Cabinet and the principle of collective ministerial responsibility.
Jacobite Rebellions and the Suppression of Scottish
Highlands
The Jacobite rebellions, led by the Stuart claimants to the throne, posed a threat to the political stability of the period. The first Jacobite revolt in 1715 was unsuccessful, but the 1745 uprising led by "Bonnie Prince Charlie" was more successful initially. However, the Highland army's advance was halted, and they were ultimately defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. The English army responded with cruelty, and the Scottish Highlands were severely punished, with the banning of traditional Highland dress and music. This cultural and linguistic repression, while it ensured political stability, also led to the loss of much of Scotland's traditional identity and heritage.
Imperial Expansion and the Slave Trade
During the 18th century, Britain gradually expanded its empire, acquiring territories in the Americas, West Africa, and India. By 1763, Britain had gained control of New France (Canada) and the Spanish colony of Florida. In 1770, James Cook's exploration led to the discovery of the east coast of Australia, which was later claimed as the colony of New South Wales. The British Empire's expansion was fueled in part by the lucrative slave trade, known as the "Triangular Trade." Britain became a major player in the transatlantic slave trade, with ports like Bristol and Liverpool serving as hubs for the trade. The slave trade was eventually abolished in the British Empire in 1807, though slavery itself was not abolished until 1833.
Industrialization and Economic Transformation
The 18th century saw the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, with the development of new technologies and the growth of industry and manufacturing. This led to significant economic and social changes, including the rise of a powerful, trade-based bourgeoisie and the migration of people from the countryside to the cities. However, political power remained largely in the hands of the landed aristocracy, who maintained their influence through the system of "robinocracy" and the ownership of country estates. The common law system, based on precedent, continued to play a significant role in British governance during this period.
Textile Industry Innovations
The production of cotton goods was limited by the spinning process until the invention of a spinning machine in 1764 that could do the work of several hand spinners. In 1785, a power loom revolutionized cloth-making, allowing Britain to produce cotton cloth more cheaply than other countries, leading to the widespread sale of Lancashire cotton cloths. However, these technological advancements also led to the displacement of many workers, changing the "cottage industry" into a factory-based system with set work hours and rules.
The Locomotive and Its Debut
In 1803, Richard Trevithick sold the patents for his steam-powered locomotive to Samuel Homfray, who was impressed by its ability to haul a significant load along the Merthyr Tydfil Tramroad in 1804.
Social Consequences of the Industrial Revolution
Workers attempted to form unions to protect themselves against powerful employers, but the government quickly banned these "combinations." Riots led by the unemployed, who had been replaced by machines, occurred, with the government supporting the factory owners and making the breaking of machinery punishable by death. The canal system made trade and manufacturing more accessible throughout Britain, as roads were less safe and slower than water transportation.
Working Conditions and Housing
Factory workers endured long hours, low wages, and dangerous conditions, with children receiving even less pay than adults. The formation of labor unions was a response to these poor working conditions and the exploitation of workers, including children. Workers were housed in overcrowded, unsanitary slums near the factories, leading to high rates of infant mortality, crime, and drunkenness. By the 1850s, the poor living conditions in the British slums gained public attention, leading to the passage of public health acts, though these were largely ineffective in solving the ongoing housing and health problems.
Early Democracy and Corruption
Britain's democracy was the oldest in Europe, but it was plagued by corruption in the constituencies, known as "Robinocracy." Only relatively wealthy men could vote, and the voting process was not secret, with candidates present when votes were cast by a show of hands.
The South Sea Company scandal in the early 18th century was an example of the speculation and corruption that was part of the emerging capitalist system. The Corn Laws, which kept cereal prices high, benefited the aristocratic landowners but burdened the working classes.
The 19th Century: The Victorian Period
The Victorian period, named after Queen Victoria, was marked by the resistance of Britain against the conquests of Napoleon, who had conquered much of Europe. The House of Hanover became the new monarchy, with the Regency period ruling at the end of the 18th century and the younger son of George III, William IV, becoming king after the deaths of his older brother and nephew. When William IV died, his niece, Victoria, became queen, and the dynasty name changed to Saxe-Coburg & Gotha, as most of the royal house at the time was German.
The 19th Century: An Overview
Beginning of the Century
1801: The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was formed, a hundred years after the union of England and Scotland. Population: England: 8.3 million Wales: 0.6 million Scotland: 1.6 million Ireland: 8 million Loss of the American colonies was still a recent event. Britain was engaged in wars with France (the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars). Trafalgar (1805) and Waterloo (1815) were significant battles. Imperial expansion continued. Political stability was maintained through reform rather than revolution. Victorian values emerged, and Britain became known as the "workshop of the world." The "rural presumption" remained prevalent.
Imperial Expansion
Britain established trading posts or strategic locations, which eventually became symbols of status. The concept of the "white man's burden" emerged, reflecting a belief in racial and moral superiority. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Britain gained control of territories such as Malta, Mauritius, the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, and Singapore.
