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SocSc 1: Society and Culture
As the society starts the new millennium, everyone is filled with excitement as well as apprehension about the prospects of a new century. Dramatic changes brought about by social upheavals, rapid population growth, information technology, increasing globalization, and environmental degradation are taking place, bringing with them multifarious problems. In the face of confusion, uncertainties or crisis, we need to understand more than ever these various phenomena and offer solutions to the different problems. In humanity’s quest for understanding the world and its concomitant problems, many approaches and solutions have been tried. Some of the speculations and attempts at understanding and solving problems are embodied in myths, legends, folkways and traditions or in the use of common sense. The philosophers, the moralists, the theologians, statesmen, and journalists have provided solutions to these problems but they are somehow insufficient and non-too reliable at times. A more precise and reliable approach was provided with the advent of science in the sixteenth century.
SocSc 1: Society and Culture
What is Science?
A clarification of the meaning of science, and of social science in particular, is fundamental to the understanding of sociology and anthropology. Some lay persons have the impression that the scientist is a queer-looking, unsociable genius, but this is very far from reality. They are not aware that the scientist is dependent upon groups and has increasingly worked in teams with other scientists. Scientists have tried to lessen or remove the difficulties of communication that separate the varied scientific disciplines and to present their findings in a manner that can be understood by the lay person. Science is a way of learning about the world through disciplined inquiry which combines systematic theory and observation that provide explanation of how things work. A theory is a system of ideas or statements held as an explanation of a group of facts or phenomena. It gives a description and explanation of matters of everyday life or facts about the world. It summarizes existing knowledge that suggests guidelines for interpreting new information. The ordered body of knowledge is arrived at through methodically rigid observation. As a method of inquiry, science is a way of finding out about the world through rigorous and disciplined collection of facts and a logical explanation of them. Science can also be viewed as a way of life when one imbibes the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary in scientific investigation. Science may be classified into two:
- Natural Sciences ✓ Study phenomena and processes as well as objects in nature and provide systematic information of the non-human and physical aspects of the natural world. ✓ Biology, physics, chemistry, zoology, geology, and astronomy are some of the natural sciences.
- Social Sciences ✓ Involved in the study of society, social relations, and human behavior. ✓ The social scientist makes use of the methods and tools used by the natural scientist in the study of social behavior and social phenomena and their subjects are human beings who can and do talk back. ✓ Hence, social scientists encounter problems such as the ethical aspects in studying their subjects, something which is not experienced by the natural scientist. There are ethical limits to
SocSc 1: Society and Culture was the first professor of Anthropology in Oxford, England. In the United States, it was Franz Boas of Clark University, Massachusetts. Modern Anthropology in both its physical and cultural aspects started only around the 20th^ century. Among its pioneers aside from Edward Tylor were Lewis Morgan and Herbert Spencer. An evolutionary view of humanity and human behavior was the dominant theme of the early anthropologists who were mostly armchair theorists. Structural-functionalism was eventually used. The turn for a higher level of research through the use of careful and thorough gathering of data about individual cultures was made by Franz Boas and Alfred Kroeber, who were followed by Bronislaw Malinowski, A. R. Radcliffe Brown, Ralph Linton, Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, and others. On the other hand, Sociology, considered as one of the youngest of the social sciences emerged about the middle of the 19th^ century when European observers began to use scientific methods to test their ideas. The Development of Sociology and Anthropology in the Philippines The ideas of sociology and anthropology were diffused in Europe, in the Americas, and Asia, and one of the receiving countries is the Philippines. In the Philippines, there is a close tradition of close cooperation between sociology and social anthropology. Anthropology began as a practical activity of colonizers in the service of religion and government. Ethnographic accounts provided by Spanish chroniclers like Pigafetta, Loarca, Plasencia, and Chirino are now being used for historical and comparative studies on Philippine society and culture. In the 19 th^ century, archaeological explorations were made by a Frenchman, Alfred Marche, who did some diggings in Marinduque. Jose Rizal and Trinidad Pardo de Tavera later contributed to ethnolinguistics and the study of folklore. During the American period, the American government got interested in the various ethnic groups of the country out of curiosity and religious, humanistic, and political reasons. The Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes was established: it was later replaced by the Ethnological Survey of the Philippines Office. Field studies were made on a number of hill peoples by such American anthropologists as H. Otley Beyer, Albert Jenks, and Roy Franklin Barton. Anthropology was elevated to an academic discipline in the University of the Philippines in 1914 by Otley Beyer. It was offered as one of the courses in the department of history; it was merged with sociology in 1921. Patterned after the American model, the studies included areas in physical ang cultural anthropology. From its inception sociology was made part of the academe. It was introduced by Fr. Valentin Marin as a subject in the curriculum in 1896 at the University of Santo Tomas, and it was initiated in the University of the Philippines in 1911 by Pres. Murray Bartlett and A. E. W. Salt. Silliman
SocSc 1: Society and Culture University was also one of the first to include it in its curriculum. At its start, sociology had a social philosophy perspective, which continued up to the 1950’s. in 1920 Serafin Macaraig, the first Filipino to obtain a Ph.D. in sociology from the University of Wisconsin, introduced the social problem orientation. Not until the 1950’s did the scientific perspective seep into sociology with the establishment of educational exchange programs and local scholarships and the holding of seminars and conferences on social science. A number of Filipinos studied in the United States and England and imbibed the theoretical and research orientations of the West, such as structural- functionalism and symbolic-interactionism. The training in anthropology was also boosted after World War II. The number of Filipinos enjoying foreign scholarships or studying in the U. S. continued to increase in the 1950’s training abroad was mostly in the University of Chicago and Cornell University. The returning scholars in both sociology and anthropology ushered into the Philippines the climate of research in the social sciences. With the arrival of several Fulbright professors, further interest in social research was started. In 1952 the Philippine Sociological Society was organized, which marked an important milestone in the development of Philippine sociology. It established a journal, the Philippine Sociological Review, which has as contributors, sociologists and anthropologists. In 1960 the Research Foundation of Philippine Anthropology and Archaeology was established giving greater impetus to research. In 1968 the Philippine Social Science Council (PSSC) was formed to consolidate the Philippine social science researches. It aimed to promote the quality and relevance of social science studies, improve teaching skills, train social science research, and encourage social science publications. The 1960’s and 1970’s saw the emergence of empirical researches undertaken in the University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University, and the University of San Carlos. The Institute of Philippine Culture at the Ateneo, headed by Dr. Frank Lynch S.J., a social anthropologist, came out with a number of publications in Philippine society and culture. The Community Development Center created in 1957 supported the various social science researches, both pure and applied. At this time, there was also an advocacy for the indigenization of concepts and tools suited to local conditions in order to wean social science research from Western pattern and methodology. Gelia Castillo, a Filipino sociologist, advocated the integration of the scattered empirical studies into the development problem areas which policy-makers, researchers, teachers, and students can focus attention on. The 1970’s brought in ideas of phenomenological sociology and Marxism in Europe.
SocSc 1: Society and Culture
Sociology, considered as one of the youngest of the social sciences emerged about the middle of the 19th^ century when European observers began to use scientific methods to test their ideas. Four factors combined to lead to the development of sociology:
1. The turmoil of the Industrial Revolution ✓ By the middle of the 19th^ century, Europe was changing from agriculture to factory production. This violently changed people’s lives. Masses of people were forced off the land. Moving to the cities in search for work, they found anonymity, crowding, filth, and poverty. Their ties to the land, to the generations that had lived there before them and to their way of life were abruptly broken. ✓ They also found horrible working conditions: low pay, exhausting hours, dangerous work, foul smoke, and much noise. To survive, families had to permit their children to work in these same conditions; some children were even chained to factory machines to make certain they could not run away. ✓ Life no longer looked the same, and tradition, which had provided the answers, no longer sufficed.
SocSc 1: Society and Culture Britain was the birthplace of industrial revolution because of the following:
- Increased population that became workers for factories and mines
- Large supply of coal in the country that fueled steam engines used for trains and other transportation
- The country’s geographical ability gave way for an easy, cheap and fast transportation of goods that enabled traders to earn more profit
- Britain’s political climate was stable, allowing free trade and related policies that allowed increase of property to increase income (but at the expense of children’s and workers’ welfare for child labor and indiscriminate wage oppression were imposed)
- Country’s vast colonial empire (North America, South Africa, Egypt, India and Australia in the 1700s) One of the earliest textile companies that employed mass production and where irregular and commonly oppressive working conditions were observed. Children and minors were employed in factories because they are not entitled to benefits that are given to those of regular working age groups. When they are harmed while working, the company reserved no financial obligation up on them, while preserving their income and increasing their financial gains. A steam boat that easily imports and exports cargoes that are advanced sources of income and wealth for the capitalists.
SocSc 1: Society and Culture
- Imperialism ✓ This factor also stimulated the development of sociology. The Europeans had been successful in conquering many parts of the world. Their new colonial empires, stretching from Asia through the North America, exposed them to radically different cultures. Startled by these contrasting ways of life, they began to ask why cultures differed.
- The success of the natural sciences. ✓ The fourth impetus for the development of sociology is the success of the natural sciences. Just as the time when people were questioning fundamental aspects of their social worlds, the scientific method — using objective, systematic observations to test theories— was being tried out in chemistry and physics. Many secrets that had been concealed in nature were uncovered. With tradition no longer providing answers to questions about social life, the logical step was to apply this method to these questions. The result was the birth of sociology.
SocSc 1: Society and Culture
Pioneers of Sociology
SocSc 1: Society and Culture
Definition and Areas of Concern of Sociology
Sociology is the science of society and the social interaction taking place among individuals in a social group. It focuses on all kinds of social interaction—social acts, social relationships, social organizations and social processes. It is concerned with the recurrent and repetitive forms of behavior, attitudes, beliefs, values, and norms, and social institutions which make up the social order. As Durkheim pointed out, its scope is social facts such as facts of religion, law, moral ideas, and economics which must be seen in their relation to each other and the collective milieu in the midst of which they develop and whose expression they are. Sociologists seek not only the description but also the explanation of social behavior. They are interested in knowing the causes of social facts, the function of social institutions, and the meaning of social action. The various areas of concern of sociology are as follows: ✓ This involves the study of social groups, social institutions, ethnic relations, social stratification, social mobility, and bureaucracy. ✓ It includes the sociology of family, economy, work, agriculture, industry, religion, law, politics, and education.
SocSc 1: Society and Culture ✓ This area studies human nature and personality as the product of group life. ✓ It also touches on the study of social attitudes and collective behavior. ✓ This area is concerned with the change in culture and social relations and the attendant disruption that may occur. Social reorganization is also considered.
SocSc 1: Society and Culture ✓ This includes theory building and testing the applicability of the principles of group life as the bases for the prediction and control of the individual’s social environment. ✓ This makes use of the findings of pure sociological research on the various aspects and problems of daily life, as in criminology, community development, family counseling, squatters’ relocation, education, agrarian reform, non-governmental organizations, labor relations, nutrition and health. Focus-group Discussion Survey Face-to-face interview
SocSc 1: Society and Culture
LITERATURE REVIEW. RESEARCH ON STUDIES RELATED TO THE
DIFFERENT AREAS OF CONCERN OF SOCIOLOGY.
How?
- Look up to the internet for journals or books that contain research studies on the topics about: a. Social organization b. Social psychology c. Social change and disorganization d. Population studies e. Human ecology f. Sociological theory and methods g. Applied sociology
- Provide one (1) research study for each topic.
- Come up with a total of seven (7) hand-written or printed outputs containing the following components for each research study described: a. Title of the study b. Methodology employed in the study c. Key findings of the study, conclusion and recommendations d. Citation using APA format e. Answer: How does this research study relate to the areas of concern of sociology?
SocSc 1: Society and Culture our changing audiences. Symbolic Interactionists primarily examine face-to- face interaction; they look at how people work out their relationships and make sense out of life and their place in it. Applying Symbolic Interactionism To better understand Symbolic Interactionism, let’s see how changing symbols (meanings) help to explain the high U.S. divorce rate. For background, you should understand that marriage used to be seen as a lifelong commitment, and divorce as an immoral act, evidence of a flagrant disregard for public opinion and the abandonment of adult responsibilities.
1. Emotional satisfaction. In the early part of the last century, symbolic interactionists observed that the basis for family solidarity was changing. As early as 1933, sociologist William Ogburn noted that personality was becoming more important in mate selection. Then in 1945, sociologists Ernest Burgess and Harvey Locke found that family solidarity was coming to depend more and more on mutual affection, understanding, and compatibility. Women of the Kayan tribes identify themselves by their forms of dress. Women of the Kayan Lahwi tribe are well known for wearing neck rings, brass coils that are placed around the neck, appearing to lengthen it. Girls first start to wear rings when they are around 5 years old. Over the years, the coil is replaced by a longer one and more turns are added. The weight of the brass pushes the collar bone down and compresses the rib cage. The neck itself is not lengthened; the appearance of a stretched neck is created by the deformation of the clavicle. Many ideas regarding why the coils are worn have been suggested, often formed by visiting anthropologists, who have hypothesized that the rings protected women from becoming slaves by making them less attractive to other tribes. It has also been theorised that the coils originate from the desire to look more attractive by exaggerating sexual dimorphism, as women have more slender necks than men. It has also been suggested that the coils give the women resemblance to a dragon, an important figure in Kayan folklore. The coils might be meant to protect from tiger bites, perhaps literally, but probably symbolically. Kayan women, when asked, acknowledge these ideas, and often say that their purpose for wearing the rings is cultural identity (one associated with beauty). Surma of Southwest Ethiopia. The gradual expansion of small ear plugs and lip plugs during childhood into large ear plates and lip plates during adulthood is another form of body modification that is closely associated with the beauty asthetic among the Surma. Scarred lip tissue is just part of the expansion process (above), with lip plate designs showing the octagonal alignment of resonant infrasound standing wave arcs. Some women have lip plates inserted in both the upper and lower lips, which obviously require temporary removal during eating and drinking.
SocSc 1: Society and Culture What these sociologists had observed was a fundamental shift in U.S. marriage: Husbands and wives were coming to expect – and demand – greater emotional satisfaction from one another. As this trend intensified, intimacy became the core of marriage. At the same time, as society grew more complex and impersonal, Americans came to see marriage as a solution to the tensions that society produced. This new form, “compassionate marriage,” contributed to divorce, for it encouraged people to expect that their spouse would satisfy “each and every need.” Consequently, sociologists say, marriage became an “overloaded instruction.”
2. The love symbol. Our symbol of love also helps to “overload” marriage. Unrealistic expectations that “true love” will be a constant source of emotional satisfaction set people up for crushed hopes, for when dissatisfactions enter marriage, as they inevitably do, spouses tend to blame one another for what they see as the other’s failure. Their engulfment in the symbol of love at the time of marriage blinds them to the basic unreality of their expectations. 3. The meaning of children. Ideas about childhood have undergone a deep historical shift with far-reaching consequences for the contemporary U.S. family. In medieval European society children were seen as miniature adults, and there was no sharp separation between the worlds of adults and children. Boys were apprenticed at about age 7, while girls at the same age learned the homemaking duties associated with the wifely role. In the United States, just three generations ago children “became adults” when they graduated from eight grade and took employment. The contrast is amazing: From miniature adults, children have been culturally fashioned into impressionable, vulnerable, and innocent beings. 4. The meaning of parenthood. These changed notions of childhood have had a corresponding impact on our ideas of good parenting. Today’s parents are expected not only to provide unending amounts of affection, love, and tender care but also to take responsibility for ensuring that their children “reach their potential.” Today’s child rearing lasts longer and is more demanding, pushing the family into even greater “emotional overload.” 5. Marital roles. In earlier generations, newlyweds knew what they could legitimately expect from each other, for the responsibilities and privileges of husbands and wives were clearly defined. In contrast, today’s much vaguer guidelines leave couples to work out more aspects of their respective roles on their own. Many find it difficult to figure out how to divide up responsibilities for work, home, and children. 6. Perception of alternatives. While the above changes in marriage expectations were taking place, another significant social change was under way: More and more women began taking jobs outside the home. As they earned paychecks of their own, many wives began for the first time to see alternatives to remaining in unhappy marriages. Symbolic interactionists
