EXPERT TEACHER GAZE ACROSS TWO CULTURAL SETTINGS 1
Teach at first sight: Expert teacher gaze across two cultural settings
Nora Ann McIntyre
Doctor of Philosophy
University of York
Education
July 2016
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EXPERT TEACHER GAZE ACROSS TWO CULTURAL SETTINGS 1
Teach at first sight: Expert teacher gaze across two cultural settings Nora Ann McIntyre
Doctor of Philosophy University of York Education
July 2016
Abstract Teacher gaze is central to learning, yet research in this area has been limited to Western and laboratory settings. Moreover, within these contexts, only attentional (i.e., information-seeking) gaze has been investigated so far. The research presented in this thesis aimed to extend existing literature by identifying culture-specific (UK and Hong Kong) patterns of expert teacher gaze in real-world classrooms, and going beyond attentional gaze to communicative (i.e., information-giving) gaze. Participants were n= 40 secondary school teachers with 20 (10 expert; 10 novice) from the UK and 20 (10 expert; 10 novice) from Hong Kong. All consented to wearing eye tracking glasses while teaching a class. Gaze proportion, duration, efficiency, flexibility and sequences were measured and analysed. The strategic consistency of the way in which teachers used gaze was also assessed, as was the relationship between measures of gaze and teachers’ interpersonal behaviour. In both cultures, expertise in teaching was demonstrated by giving students priority, that is, higher proportions and longer durations of teacher gaze directed towards students. Gaze flexibility was also a sign of expertise in both cultures, as was strategic consistency. Cultural differences also emerged in what constituted expert teacher gaze. Expertise specific to the UK was shown through teachers looking less at teacher materials and through strategic consistency. Expertise specific to Hong Kong was shown through looking less at non-instructional non-student targets and by gaze flexibility. Teacher interpersonal style (i.e., agency × communion) and teacher agency increased as non-student attentional gaze decreased and as non-student communicative gaze increased; and teacher communion was significantly related to attentional but not communicative gaze.
Contents
List of Figures
- Abstract…………………………………………………………………………… Page
- Table of contents…………………………………………………………………
- List of Tables……………………………………………………………………
- List of Figures……………………………………………………………………
- Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………
- Author’s Declaration…………………………………………………………........
- Chapter 1 Introduction………………………………………………………...
- Chapter 2 Literature Review: Gaze as Natural Pedagogy……………………..
- Chapter 3 Literature Review: Expert Teacher Gaze…………………………..
- Chapter 4 Literature Review: Expert Teacher Gaze Across Cultures………...
- Chapter 5 Literature Review: Teacher Interpersonal Gaze……………………
- Chapter 6 Literature Review: Analytic Strategy………………………………
- Chapter 7 Method……………………………………………………………..
- Chapter 8 Results……………………………………..………………………
- Chapter 9 Discussion…………………………….……………………………
- Chapter 10 Conclusion………………………………………………………….
- Appendices ……………………………………………………………..............
- Appendix 1: English QTI………………………………………….
- Appendix 2: Chinese QTI…………………………………………
- Appendix 3: Teacher Consent Form (inc. cultural questions)…….
- Appendix 4: Teacher Experience Form…………………………...
- Appendix 3: State Space Grid Formulae………………………….
- References …………………………………………………………………….
- Table 7 1 Teacher Demographics…………………………………………….. Page
- Table 7.2 Student Demographics……………………………………………...
- Table 7.3 HVIC items selected for the present study…………………………
- Table 7.4 List of gaze and didactic codes applied to eye-tracking data………
- Table 7.5 An illustrative winnowing table…………………………………….
- Table 7.6 Example attentional scanpaths from the present sample…………...
- Table 7.7 Intra- and Inter-Individual comparisons……………………………
- Table 7.8 Single-IV scanpath comparisons…………………………………...
- Table 7.9 Dual-IV scanpath comparisons……………………………………..
- Table 7.1 0 List of all variables that underwent statistical analysis……………..
- Table 8.1 Descriptive statistics for teacher gaze proportions…………………
- Table 8.2 Beta regression outcomes for attentional gaze proportions………...
- Table 8.3 Beta regression outcomes for communicative gaze proportions…...
- Table 8.4 Mean Cell Duration Values for Efficient Gaze Selection…………..
- Table 8.5 Modal scanpaths of six for each teacher sub-group………………...
- Table 8.6 Dispersion (i.e., strategic inconsistency) of teacher group…………
- Table 8.7 Teacher overall interpersonal style, agency and communion………
- Table 8.8 Hierarchical regression model: attentional interpersonal style……..
- Table 8.9 Hierarchical regression model: communicative interpersonal style..
- Table 8.10 Hierarchical regression model: attentional agency…………………
- Table 8.11 Hierarchical regression model: communicative agency……………
- Table 8.12 Hierarchical regression model: attentional communion……………
- Table 8.13 Hierarchical regression model: communicative communion………
- Figure 2.1 Concept map of where this thesis in the wider framework……… Page
- Figure 5.1 The Model for Interpersonal Teacher Behaviour…………………
- Figure 5.2 Teacher interpersonal profiles and student attitudes………………
- Figure 5.3 Ideal, best and worst teacher interpersonal profiles……………….
- Figure 6.1 Example state spaces for the present research question…………...
- Figure 6.2 String editing procedure…………………………………………...
- Figure 7.1 The Tobii 1.0 eye-tracking glasses that were used………………..
- Figure 7.2 Infra-red marker for calibration…………………………………...
- Figure 7.3 The calibration process……………………………………………
- Figure 7.4 Recording Assistant for Tobii 1.0 eye-tracking glasses…………..
- Figure 7.5 Tobii 1.0 eye-tracking glasses that were used…………………….
- Figure 7.6 Screenshot example of gaze replay from the present gaze data…...
- Figure 7.7 The component plot for students’ QTI responses…………………
- Figure 7.8 The circumplex plot for students’ QTI responses…………………
- Figure 7.9 Data layout for synchronising gaze and verbal data……………….
- Figure 7.10 The ‘state space’ of teachers’ didactic gaze……………………….
- Figure 7.11 Winnowing process: An explanatory graph……………………….
- Figure 8.1 The state space grid of teachers’ didactic gaze…………………….
- Figure 8.2 Gaze sequences of six and seven in attentional gaze……………...
- Figure 8.3 Gaze sequence of six and seven in communicative gaze…………..
- Figure 8.4 Line graphs with teacher attentional gaze proportions ……………
- Figure 8.5 Line graphs with teacher communicative gaze proportions ……….
- Figure 8.6 Teachers’ attentional gaze duration per visit………………………
- Figure 8.7 Teachers’ communicative gaze duration per visit…………………
- Figure 8.8 Attentional gaze efficiency among teachers……………………….
- Figure 8.9 Communicative gaze efficiency among teachers..………………...
- Figure 8.10 Teachers’ attentional gaze flexibility……………………………...
- Figure 8.11 Teachers’ communicative gaze flexibility…………………………
- Figure 8.12 The role of teacher expertise in teacher interpersonal style……….
- Figure 8.13 The role of teacher expertise in predicting teacher agency………
- Figure 8.14 Cultural differences in ratings of teachers’ interpersonal style……
- Figure 8.15 Cultural differences in ratings of teachers’ agency………………
- Figure 8.16 Culture-specific teacher communion………………………………
- Figure 8.17 Teacher non-student attentional gaze in teacher interpersonal style
- Figure 8.18 Teacher non-student attentional gaze in teacher agency…………..
- Figure 8.19 Teacher attentional teacher material gaze in teacher communion…
- Figure 8.20 Communicative non-student gaze in teacher interpersonal style….
- Figure 8.21 Teacher communicative gaze and teacher agency…………………
Author’s Declaration I hereby declare that the work contained in this thesis is my own, except where otherwise referenced, and it is the result of study that has been conducted since the official commencement date of the degree. This work has not, in whole or in part, previously been published and never been submitted for any other degrees for the University of York or otherwise.
1. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
As humans, we are born with an expectation to learn through the gaze of others (Csibra & Gergely, 2009). Although we find human faces intrinsically more interesting than non-facial stimuli, such as flowers (Taylor, Itier, Allison & Edmonds, 2001) or upturned faces (Tomalski, Csibra & Johnson, 2009), it is the eyes contained by faces that we are most interested in (Taylor et al., 2001)—so much that faces without eyes are of no interest to us (Tomalski et al., 2009). What do eyes have that give them such precedence?
It can be argued that eyes are the richest source of information available in the social world (e.g., classrooms, Baron-Cohen, 1995; Frith & Frith, 2012) and are therefore the choicest channel for learning about the world. In turn, effective use of one’s eyes would best ensure successful teaching about the world. The failure or inability to relate with others through gaze has been associated with negative socio-emotional experiences (Bauminger & Kasari, 2000; Travis & Sigman, 1998) and life outcomes (Chen, Leader, Sung & Leahy, 2015; Wehman et al., 2014). The skilled use of gaze in social interaction earns trust (Einav & Hood, 2008), affection (Mason, Tatkow & Macrae, 2005) and eminence (Mason, Hood & Macrae, 2004). As such, teachers would be wise to give due importance to this aspect of classroom instruction.
Yet, research is limited regarding how gaze should be used by teachers (Gegenfurtner, Lehtinen & Säljö, 2011). To understand what effective teacher gaze involves, the present study made expert–novice comparisons with the expectation that this approach would make best practice clear. This study thus follows expertise research tradition which has, through expert–novice comparisons, consistently highlighted how exceptional members of varying professions behave (e.g., for radiologists, Lesgold et al., 1988; for physicists, Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reimann & Glaser, 1989; for musicians, Brochard, Dufour & Despres, 2004). The present study goes further by making cross-
teaching is an exceptionally complicated profession (Berliner, 2001) which needs even more to be investigated in the classroom setting in order for research on expert teacher gaze to be accurate (Rich, 1993). Accordingly, the present study was conducted in the real-world , in secondary school lessons that participants teach as part of their everyday life.
To make this real-world design possible, eye-tracking glasses were used. Because such mobile, real-world eye-tracking data is new, much of the present thesis was dedicated to exploring analytic techniques that are both feasible and insightful with regard to teacher expertise (Sternberg & Horvath, 1995). Three stages of gaze analysis are reported in this thesis: frequency, temporal and scanpath analyses. The present thesis innovated in its frequency analysis , by using proportion measures as indications of teachers’ long-term strategies and priorities (e.g., Brändtstatter, Gigerenzer & Hertwig, 2006). Using state space grids (Hollenstein, 2013), this study’s temporal analysis was also innovative because both static (i.e., conventional, aggregated) and dynamic (i.e., process-tracing, structural) approaches were taken to explore equally important aspects of teacher expertise (Sternberg & Horvath, 1995). This study was also the first to conduct scanpath analysis (Foulsham & Underwood, 2008) on mobile, non-geometric (position-based) eye-tracking data. All three approaches to analysing teachers’ glasses eye-tracking data revealed statistically significant and conceptually insightful findings on expert teacher gaze. The present thesis thus makes valuable methodological contribution to educational eye- tracking research.
Finally, teachers’ instructional behaviour is never separate from their interpersonal behaviour. Teachers may prioritise pedagogical goals, but their actions can never be extricated from the interpersonal dynamics in classroom interactions (Crétons, Wubbels & Hooymayers, 1993). The manner in which teachers seek (as in attentional gaze) and give
(as in communicative gaze) information through their gaze will have interpersonal effects on their students, whether they are aware of this or not (Watzlawick, Beavin & Jackson, 1967). Given the importance of teacher–student relationships to students’ classroom experiences and outcomes (Pianta et al., 2012), the present thesis explored the connection between teacher gaze and their ‘interpersonal style’ as reported by students (Wubbels et al., 2012) to initiate the study of interpersonal gaze. Using hierarchical multiple regression, teachers’ expertise and culture were factored out in analysis to then identify the direct relationship between teachers’ gaze and three aspects of their interpersonal style: teacher agency (i.e., leadership), communion (i.e., closeness with students) and overall interpersonal style (i.e., agency × communion).
In all, the present research sought to understand (1) expert teacher gaze (2) for communication as well as attention, (3) in two cultural settings, Hong Kong and the UK, and (4) to do these in the real-world. This thesis also demonstrates the contributions that (5) three analytic approaches can make to real-world teacher gaze research and makes headway into understanding (6) teacher interpersonal gaze by connecting teacher gaze with their interpersonal style.
Social cognition is “the sum of those processes that allow individuals of the same species to interact with one another” (Frith & Frith, 2007, p. 724). Social cognition is the way in which humans “interpret, analyse and remember information about their social world” (Pennington, 2000, p. 1) so that individuals in the same context are able to, as a network, achieve collective goals and maintain shared values. Indeed, social information is being exchanged at all times, even when the observee is not deliberately giving information to the observers and when the observee is unaware of being watched, such that all observable behaviour is public information as far as social cognition is concerned (Danchin, Giraldeau, Valone & Wagner, 2004). In fact, the observational mechanisms of social cognition are arguably essential to human learning, in order to avoid catastrophic mistakes in relation to specific locations, actions or another person (Frith & Frith, 2012). Given that social cognition is very much developed through the observation of others, the role of gaze—attentional and communicative—in message exchange is likely to be an important one.
Since collective goals are shared rules that govern group behaviours and priorities (Visscher, 2007), they are integral to social cognition. Accordingly, investigation of social cognition must take place in the real-world, where collective goals are in operation (Fiske & Taylor, 2013). Additionally, social cognition necessarily concerns mentalism ; that is, the internal representation of a given concept—such as a person, his characteristics and the relationship between his characteristics (Fiske & Taylor, 2013; Onishi & Baillargeon, 2005; Wimmer & Perner, 1983). As we adjust to the needs of our context, a chain of cognitive responses take place (McGuire, 1969), such that process is another aspect of interest and process analysis becomes relevant (Fiske & Taylor, 2013). Additionally, to address collective goals in one’s context, multi-modal input is made (Fiske & Taylor, 2013), of which visual data is of central interest in this thesis.
2.1.1. Automatic Social Cognition Social cognition is both automatic and controlled. As part of automatic social cognition, Danchin refers to the publicly understood information that is channelled through social behaviours (Danchin, Giraldeau, Valone & Wagner, 2004). The movement of the observee is another indication of whether he or she is becoming a social agent (Frith & Frith, 2010; Johansson, 1973), or a potential partner for interaction.
Mentalism is also known as ‘mind-reading’ and involves the judgement of intentions based on observed movements (Castelli, Happe, Frith & Frith, 2000; Frith & Frith, 2010), trustworthiness based on past actions (Behrens, Hunt, Woolrich & Rushworth, 2008; Pelphrey, Morris & McCarthy, 2004) and knowledge based on past performance (Samson, Apperly, Braithwaite, Andrews & Bodley-Scott, 2010). Mentalism also involves judging emotional states, whereby humans are continually self-projecting, a major component of mentalism (Mitchell, 2009). During self-projection, individuals continually simulate for themselves a hypothetical set of mental states that seem appropriate for the experiences they are observing (Jenkins, Macrae & Mitchell, 2008; Mitchell, Cloutier, Banaji & Macrae, 2006; Mitchell, Banaji & Macrae, 2005). Meanwhile, the observer mentalises to track their own agency, through self-reflection for assessing one’s control over a situation (Miele, Wager, Mitchell & Metcalfe, 2011)—a process that continues, as one remains in a context or as they move from one space to the next (Hampton, Bossaerts & O’Doherty, 2008).
Over time, humans form impressions about the ‘regular’ interlocutors in their lives to ease demands on cognitive load (Higgins, King & Mavin, 1982). These impressions are proceduralised (i.e., refined) over time (Smith & Branscombe, 1988), thereby refining the approach interactions with familiar individuals in well-established contexts.
participants to Black stimuli—and the absence of this in self-reported racial attitudes (Phelps et al., 2000). Thus, social goals drive humans to exercise intent—and counteract instinct—when making conscious decisions.
2.1.3. Social Cognition in Teacher Gaze In summary, the present thesis lies within the field of social cognition: specifically, in the way humans use automatic and controlled mechanisms to make decisions about the nature of the interaction. What follows is the way teaching and learning takes place within one part of social cognition, namely controlled social cognition, specifically intent. Although I focus on this aspect of social cognition, I am conscious that other aspects of social cognition are active: I will therefore be referring back to relevant aspects of social cognition in subsequent chapters. Figure 2.1 depicts where teacher gaze—and this thesis—falls in the overall framework of social cognition. For now, let us focus on the controlled aspect of the inherent way in which humans learn, through natural pedagogy.
EXPERT TEACHER GAZE ACROSS TWO CULTURAL SETTINGS 20
Figure 2.1. Concept map of where this thesis (especially teacher communicative gaze) resides in the wider framework of research.