Masaryk University
Faculty of Arts
Department of English and American Studies
Petra Procházková
Female Characters in Beowulf
B.A. Major Thesis
Supervisor: doc. Mgr. Milada Franková, CSc., M.A.
Brno 2007
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The Significance of Female Characters in Beowulf: Peace Weavers and Beyond, Study Guides, Projects, Research of English Literature
The roles of female characters in the Old English epic poem 'Beowulf.' While the poem primarily focuses on the deeds of male heroes, the female figures play indispensable roles in the poetic structure. The discussion covers the roles of peace weavers, such as Hildeburh and Freawaru, as well as foils to peace weavers, like Modthryth and Grendel's mother. The analysis also delves into the importance of female characters in the narrative digressions and their impact on the complexity of the poem.
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Masaryk University
Faculty of Arts
Department of English and American Studies
Petra Procházková
Female Characters in Beowulf
B.A. Major Thesis
Supervisor: doc. Mgr. Milada Franková, CSc., M.A.
Brno 2007
I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary andsecondary sources listed in the bibliography.
Brno, April 2007
TABLE OF CONTENTS
- INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................
- THE PLACE OF WOMEN IN THE HEROIC SOCIETY OF BEOWULF
- THE ROLES OF WOMEN IN BEOWULF...................................................................
- THE QUEENS IN5. GRENDEL'S MOTHER 31 BEOWULF
- CONCLUSION
- PRIMARY SOURCES...................................................................................................
- SECONDARY SOURCES
1. INTRODUCTION
Beowulf is the longest and most the most outstanding epic poem in the Old English literature. In accordance with the principles of heroic poetry, the Beowulf-poet primarily focuses on the deeds of the male hero. The society depicted in the poem reflects heroic values
- especially courage, loyalty and generosity. The primary relationship, which concerns the poet most, exists between men – between a lord and his loyal retainers. The poet does not describe those aspects of the Anglo-Saxon society which are beyond the scope of the epic poetry such as peasants or slaves. He is absorbed in the world of warriors. Somewhat surprisingly, however, the poem also contains several female characters. My thesis argues that even though they are not of primary concern, they are integral and substantial part of the poem. In the first chapter, I analyse the values of the heroic world in order to demonstrate the primary emphasis on male characters. I also summarize the critical reception of female figures
- on the one hand, they have often been viewed as too passive and suffering. The poet has been criticised for condemning them to the roles of helpless victims of the society they live in. On the other hand, however, the influence of feminist and gender theories have prompted a new approach, which presents female charactres as equal counterparts to the male heroes. In this respect, scholars have focused especially on the analysis of the term "peace weaver". Therefore, the next chapter is devoted to the roles of female characters in general. I analyse various aspects of peace weaving as well as the roles associated with the mead-hall such as the "passer-of-the-cup" and the "gift-giver". Then, I proceed to the analysis of the individual female figures, their functions within the story and their place in the poetic structure. I focus on their individual traits as well as on parallels existing between them. Some obscure points arising from the Beowulf manuscript are mentioned, as well.
2. THE PLACE OF WOMEN IN THE HEROIC SOCIETY OF BEOWULF
Epic narratives such as Beowulf are based on the principles of heroic society. The world of Beowulf is full of "heroic campaigns" (3), which are accomplished with daring courage and bravery. Beowulf has to go through many dangerous situations in order to win his glory. To live and die bravely is a matter of honour for him. Personal fame and courage are among the main values of the society depicted in the poem. Beowulf is lof-geornost ("keenest to win fame", 3182) because the only thing he seems to be afraid of is oblivion. There is a way for him to become "immortal" – as a part of a scop's song. He strives for the glory because he does not want to be forgotten and that is why he tells Hrothgar: "For every one of us, living in this world / means waiting for our end. Let whoever can / win glory before death. When a warrior is gone, / that will be his best and only bulwark" (1386-1389). In fact, the whole poem can be described as a story about Beowulf's winning of the immortal glory. The actions of a male epic hero constitute the centre of the epic poetry. Subsequently, the society depicted in these poems is "quintessentially male" (Rochester), focusing on a relationship between men. A primary relationship – which is described even as "a bond of love" – exists between a king and his retainers, whose main duty is to be loyal to their lord (Irving 22). This relationship was described already by the Roman historian Tacitus in his account of German society called Germania (written in 98 AD): "(…) it is a lifelong infamy and reproach to survive the chief and withdraw from the battle. To defend him, to protect him, even to ascribe to his glory their own exploits, is the essence of their sworn of allegiance: the chiefs fight for victory, the followers for their chief" (qtd. in Köberl 2). In Anglo-Saxon literature, the same ideas are expressed for example in The Battle of Maldon from the 10th century. According to Kevin Crossley-Holland, the speech of one of the characters called Byrhtwold should be "regarded as the supreme statement of the Germanic heroic code" (5):
Mind must be the firmer, heart the more fierce, courage the greater, as our strength diminishes. Here lies our leader, hewn down, an heroic man in the dust. He who now longs to escape will lament for ever. I am old. I will not go from here, but I mean to lie by the side of my lord, lie in the dust with the man I loved so dearly. (309-316) A brief mention of these values can be found even in the opening lines of Beowulf: "So. The Spear-Danes in days gone by / and the kings who ruled them had courage and greatness" (1-2). However, Edvard Irving comments that modern readers may find a society based on these principles "strange and even unattractive" because it seems to be barbaric and obsessed with violence (20). It is true that even Beowulf himself claims that "[i]t is always better to avenge dear ones than to indulge in mourning" (1384b-1385). According to Irving, murder and anarchy were common in a society devoted to personal achievement through the use of violence. "Since law in our sense scarcely existed, private vengeance usually had the task of dealing with such crises. As we see often in Beowulf, such private vengeance had a way of leading to a long-lasting and bloody feud or vendetta" (Irving 23). Nevertheless, we should bear in mind that the poem reflects reality only partially. It is a "product of a single aristocratic class of warriors and it is directed exclusively to the interests of such an audience" (Irving 20). That is why many aspect of the real Anglo-Saxon society were deliberately excluded. As Irving continues, "[t]he characters feast constantly but we never see peasants engaged in growing their food or brewing their ale. (…) If [the
The character of Grendel's mother, as well, has acquired a new significance. In the overall scheme of the poem, she is primarily another monster for the hero to fight. Under the influence of the feminist theories, however, she has been analysed as an example of a strong and autonomous woman or as a feminine archetype on the mythical level. Dorothy Carr Porter focused on not only on the role of female characters in Beowulf but also on their place in the poetic structure. As she concludes: (…) the presentation of these women is purposefully symmetrical, inviting comparisons and contrasts. Those women who act as hostesses and peaceweavers, even while looking out for their own interests, are central to the poem, and an understanding of the functions of the women in Beowulf assists the comprehension of a complex poem. Those women presented as monsters, the hostile hostesses and strife- weavers, are interesting in themselves, and also serve as counter-examples to the other female characters. (…) Though they are all defined by the men that they are close to, either sons, fathers, or brothers, none of the women in Beowulf are marginal or excluded. My thesis argues for these ideas and presents female figures in Beowulf as indispensable components of the poetic structure. However, before the analysis of the individual characters, it is necessary to focus on their roles in general.
3. THE ROLES OF WOMEN IN BEOWULF
As noted above, the most important role of female figures in Beowulf is that of a "peace weaver" (freothuwebbe in Old English). This term refers to a woman married from one tribe into another in order to secure peace between the two groups. Interestingly, the term is also used for angels in Old English poems such as Judith, because "they serve the same function as intermediaries – for women between one tribe and another, for angels between God and Mankind" (Maxwell). However, the term freothuwebbe is used only once in Beowulf
- about Modthryth in 1942. In 2017, Queen Wealhtheow is referred to by a similar term, frithu-sibb folca, which means "peace-pledge between nations". John Hill argues that these terms differ in meaning – accoding to him, the term freothuwebbe implies that a peace weaving person holds importance within the group into which she was married (for example, as a "passer-of-the-cup"), whereas the latter term explicitely suggests a link between the two rival groups. To the contrary, Larry M. Sklute does not see any distinction between both words, claiming that they are used as synonyms (both in Carr Porter). However, the scarce occurrence of both terms has led Sklute to suggest that they are used only as metaphors restricted to poetry. Nevertheless, he points out that arranged marriages – no matter how the woman functioning as "peace weaver" was actually referred to
- were a widespread practice in German societies (in Carr Porter). Acording to Edward Irving, this practice evolved from the effort to find a satisfactory solution to long-lasting feuds between clans, tribes, nations and other groups (24). Laura Maxwell specifies that the peace weaver was offered – "though there's not a clear distinction between being offered or being taken hostage – as a pledge of good faith between tribes (…)". Similarly, precious items such as jewellery and battle gear were often exchanged as "seals of good faith – physical objects in place of (non-existant) written contracts. They are markers of agreements which, without writing, have no other physical representation" (Maxwell). In this
While distributing the cup, Wealhtheow is also shown to perform other functions – she converses with warriors, praises them and politely reminds them of their loyalty to each other and to their king. She functions as an intermediary between the king and warriors, which strengthens the ties of the war band. Besides it, she also incites Beowulf to action. In fact, a queen was supposed to act in a diplomatic way – to speak wisely and to council "through her lightheartedness, gentleness and constructive eloquence" (Chance qtd. in Andrade 1). Another important function of a queen is gift-giving. Women in Anglo-Saxon times owned property and could distribute it at will (in Coone-McRary). Subsequently, one of the most important duties of a queen was to be generous. In Beowulf, it is especially Hygd who is praised for this quality. However, when discussing the female characters in Beowulf, some scholars focus only on the tragic aspects of their roles. For example, Gillian Overing asserts that the most outstanding aspect of any peace weaving figure in Beowulf is "(…) her inevitable failure to be a peace-weaver; the task is never accomplished the role is never fully assumed, the woman is never identified (…)" (qtd. in Andrade 3). Both Edward Irving and Johann Köberl characterize women in Beowulf as "victims" (24 and 20, respectively). Similarly, Victoria Wodzak states that the peace weaver has no chance of being successful because the peace ultimately depends on the heroic world of men (in Andrade 8). Overing, as well, agrees that a peace weaver is "an unacceptable solution to the chaos in Anglo-Saxon warfare" (qtd. in Andrade 3). It is true that the stories of some (though not all) female characters end in tragedy. For example, Hildeburh loses her beloved ones and Freawaru is not able to avert war. However, we should bear in mind that tragic overtones are deeply embedded in Old English literature – according to Christine Fell,
Much of Old English poetry is concerned with the vulnerability of the individual, whether this is a man who has lost his lord, an exile, a poet out of favor, a woman separated from her husband, or some other unfortunate. Heroic poetry in particular is much concerned with the vulnerability of the woman cast in the role of freothuwebbe, 'peace-weaver', where it is hoped that a peace-settlement between two hostile tribes or families may be made firmer by a marriage-bond. The emphasis is on the isolation of such an individual in a society where the protection of her own family has been replaced by the dislike and distrust of those in her new environment. (in Pfile) Beowulf, as well, contains tragic themes. As Anthea Andrade points out, "[a]ll kingdoms mentioned within the poem are ultimately destroyed regardless of how tactful the queen is" (3). On the other hand, however, not all the women in Beowulf are entirely tragic – Wealhtheow copes with her duties in the hall and Modthryth becomes the wife of the famous King Offa and the mother of the hero Eomer. According to Andrade, "(…) peace-weaving is productive – if only temporarily. Both childbirth and diplomacy (even if short-lived) are creative acts: the peace-weaver produces a 'text' that rewrites history, either her own or that of the two tribes" (9). Above all, none of the women in Beowulf is passive – every one seeks to achieve her own goals and tries to cope with the society she lives in.
'servant of the chosen'" (Damico and Hill qtd. in Gardner 9). Indeed, it is a strange name for a queen. Does it suggest that her background is not noble? In contrast to this speculation, she is described as frithu-sibb folca, "peace-pledge between nations", by Beowulf himself (2017) – a role typically destined for women of noble origin. Nevertheless, it is not clear what kind of hostility she was supposed to pacify. Despite being a "peace-pledge between nations", she is always shown acting only among the Danes. Unlike Hildeburh, who holds importance both among the Danes and the Frisians, Wealhtheow remains identified only in relation to her husband's kindred. When discussing this issue, William A. Chaney notes that in a "kin-centered society such as that of the Anglo- Saxons and other Germanic peoples (…) common descent bound the social group together and provided the basis of unity" (qtd. in Pfile). It means that every person had to identify themselves by their lineage, which also implies that by not having the support of blood relatives, one's own identity was threatened. Subsequently, such a person was viewed with distrust. Nevertheless, even if this might potentially apply to Wealhtheow, the poet always describes her in the best way. He uses such epithets as "queenly" and "dignified" (621). She is shown as "a representation of Hrothgar's hall" (Gardner 11) with her jewells and her costly attire standing for power. In fact, her character fulfills the role of a model queen who sets an example of queenly behavior in the mead-hall in two feasting scenes. The poet introduces her to the story after a violent verbal exchange between Beowulf and Unferth – Beowulf has just accused him of killing his brothers and hinted at Danish inability to cope with Grendel. Even though these words are actually expected of him as a part of formal boasting, "it may be that the harmony of the community has been put to severe restrain in this exchange (…)" (Irving 45). Therefore, the poet shifts attention to the queen, whom he associates with peace and tranquility.
She is shown in her foremost role of a peace weaver in the hall – as a passer-of-the- cup. The poet tells us that she hands the cup to the king first, underlining his utmost power as noted above. After Hrothgar's ceremonial toast, she goes on her rounds, offering the cup to retainers according to their prominence. "One might say, crudely, that she keeps the score and awards the points in the competition for public prestige, while at the same time ensuring, by constant 'circulation', that no deserving person is entirely left out" (Shippey). In this scene, Wealhtheow reaches Beowulf in the end. Even if it might seem a bit impolite of her, we must bear in mind that Beowulf is a stranger in the hall and that he is also probably too young to have a more prominent position (he is sitting between Wealhtheow's young sons). On the other hand – as Jennifer Gardner notes – the Danes are served first in order to drink a toast to the newly arrived guests (6). However, in the second feasting scene, Beowulf is offered the cup immediately because he has meanwile acquired higher status by keeping his promise to kill Grendel. At the same time, by handing the cup from warrior to warrior, the queen reminds them of their loyalty to each other and to their king. Thus, the cup symbolizes "an invisible web of peace, reflecting the dependent relationship each warrior had on another" (Andrade 14). In this respect, Wealhtheow's cup contrasts with the cup from the dragon's hoard, which can be perceived as an ominous symbol of disintergation and violence. It had been lying there uselessly for ages and the theft of it incited the dragon's fury. The second scene where Wealhtheow acts takes place after the fight with Grendel. Edvard Irving notes that "(…) at this point, many traditional images of order and harmony flood into poem, the most significant of them being the great victory feast held in Heorot" (52). Again, the queen appears after a disturbing passage. This time, she not only passes the cup but also gives treasure. As a model queen, Wealhtheow is – according to Helen Damico – an embodiment of generosity (in Andrade 15). She gives Beowulf a precious necklace known
towards the end and Beowulf's death (in Bonjour 41-42). Therefore the soothing element is no longer appropriate. All in all, Wealhtheow proves to be very competent. She actively fulfills her role of a peace-weaver and she is in many respects successful. However, I have not yet discussed the poet's dark allusions concerning the fate of her sons and the future of Heorot. It is hinted at mainly by means of a parallel between Wealhtheow and the Frisian queen Hildeburh. Therefore, it is necessary to focus on the Finnsburg Episode at first. The Finnsburg Episode belongs among digressions from the main story line. Hans Jürgen Diller defines a digression as "(…) a piece of text which interrupts the chronological progress of the surrounding story or argument by telling or summarizing sequences of events outside the main story. Their topic is not identical with that of the surrounding text" (73). The Finnsburg Episode is presented as a scop's song performed at the feast after Beowulf's victory over Grendel (1065-1158). "Unfortunately for us, this story is told so elliptically and allusively, evidently to an audience capable of responding to slight hints by reconstructing the familiar story, that it offers serious problems in interpretation" (Irving 52). The sequence of events could be reconstructed only by means of comparison with a badly damaged and incomplete manuscript known as the Finnsburg Fragment. We gather that it is a tragic story about the outbreak of violence between the Frisian king Finn and his brother-in-law Hnaef, who is from Denmark. The actual cause of their dispute is not clear but it is probable that the Danes and the Frisians are involved in a long-lasting feud. That is why Hnaef's sister Hildeburh was married to Finn. Hnaef and Finn's son are killed during the night attack. Hildeburh learns it in the morning and burns their dead bodies on a funeral pyre. Command of the Danes is subsequently taken over by Hengest, who swears loyalty to Finn. After the winter spent at Finnsburg, Hengest is worried by thoughts of vengeance. The fight breaks out again, Finn is killed and Hengest takes the queen back to Denmark.
At least, this is the interpretation which is accepted by most scholars. It is based on the assumption that the battle described in the Fragment chronologically precedes the events of the Episode. There have been attempts to place it elsewhere – for example Möller's theory discussed in Chambers' Beowulf: An Introduction argues that the battle in the Fragment is not that one in which Hildeburh's son and brother are killed. According to him, this battle takes place later on and describes a Frisian attack on Hengest, who is planning to revenge Hnaef's death (254-257). The attempts to harmonize the Fragment and the Episode are complicated by incongruous tones of both passages. As far as the Fragment is concerned, it is "(…) a superbly exciting narrative, with full stress on reckless unthinking action and the absolute courage of the heroic defenders of the hall" (Irving 53). On the other hand, the Episode in Beowulf rather portrays the effects of violence on unfortunate and innocent victims. As Chambers points out, "[t]he tone (…) is quite different. Whereas the Fragment is inspired by the lust and joy of battle, the theme of the Episode, as told in Beowulf, is rather the pity of it all, the legacy of mourning and vengeance which is left to survivors" (248). Thus, the Episode begins with the figure of Hildeburh, "the woman in shock, waylaid by grief", "bereft and blameless" (1073-75). It is not clear who started the fight. Nor do we know whether her son fought with the Danes or with the Frisians. Tolkien claims that he joined his uncle (in Osborn) whereas Irving argues for his father's side (53). Nevertheless, whatever has happened, Hildeburh ends up as a "certain loser" (Irving 53) – her beloved ones are slain. Of all the queens in Beowulf, only Hildeburh and Freawaru can be perceived as entirely tragic. Hildeburh demonstrates a conflict of a peace weaver who is trapped between loyalty to her husband and to her brother. Significantly, the poet does not mention Hildeburh's mourning for her husband's death, implying that she prefers her blood relatives. Nevertheless,