C. Beccaria (p.361-2) – Cesare Bonesana, the marquis of Beccaria (1738 – 1794)
- influenced by Montesquie, Buffon, Diderot, and Rousseau
- Italian philosopher and politician
- wrote On Crimes and Punishments (1764)
- against torture, death penalty, and supported criminal rights
- “innocent until proven guilty” and severed connection between law and religion
- strong supporter of law, education, and rural reform
Francois Quesnay and laissez-faire (p.370-1) – French doctor and economist
- Against government capping prices of goods sold, believes this will increase and production
and lower prices in the long run
- Wrote in the Encyclopedia
- “laissez-faire” French for “leave alone” philosophy presented by Adam Smith
- “invisible hand” philosophy is let the British economy thrive naturally, foreign and
domestically
Marriage Act (1753) (p. 413) – forbade clandestine marriages
- Central goal: extend uniformity of the law
- Specifically tried to stop men from eloping with wealthy land owners daughters to gain
property
- Clandestine – done in secrecy
“harmony of the spheres” (p. 317-8) – Religion believed the orbits of planet were perfect circles and
that all of them are in harmony when in motion
- Johannes Kepler disproved this theory without intentions too
- Harmony theory is wrong for three reasons: 1. Planets orbit in elliptical patterns not circular,
2. The planets move at different speed at different times, 3. Planets were effected from
force emanating from the sun
Joseph II and serfdom – abolished serfdom in 1781
- Converting peasant labor obligations into an annual payment to the lord
- Also ended obligations of personal service to the lord, peasant could marry or leave without
permission from lord
- Peasants could turn to state for support against oppressive lord
- Son of Queen Maria Theresa of Austria who banned mistreatment of peasants
Carl Becker’s “heavenly city” thesis – “if nature is good, then there is no evil in the world; if there is no
evil in the world, the nature is so far not good”
- “but a foundling in the universe, abandoned by the forces that created him. Unparented, un
assisted and undirected by omnicent or benevolent authority, he must fend for himself, and
with the aid of his own limited intelligence find his way about in an indifferent universe”
- “indifferent universe”
“Dr. Pangloss” (notes) – Leibniz – denies reality of evil, is a pessimist
- Deist, pre-established harmony
- “Cosmic optimism”
- Character from book Candide by Voltaire
Nicholas of Cusa and Copernicus – Nicholas was German cardinal of Roman Catholic Church,
philosopher, mathematician and philosopher
- Nicholas said no perfect circle can exist in universe before Kepler’s model and also before
Copernicus’ belief in the circular orbit
War of the Austrian Succession – Charles V (ruled 1711-1740) had no son and he lost Spanish Succession
- Twenty-three year old daughter Maria Theresa (ruled 1740-1780) took throne in Hapsberg
but barred from being considered Holy Roman Empress
