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Part I
Foundations of Group Communication
Introducing Group
Principles and
1 Practices
Chapter Outline
What Is Small Group Communication?
What Is Team Communication?
Communicating Collaboratively: Advantages and
Disadvantages
Communicating in Different Types of Groups
Communicating in Virtual Groups and Teams
How Can You Become a Competent Small Group
Communicator?
ObjeCtives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Define small group communication.
■ Discuss the characteristics of a team.
■ List and describe the advantages and disadvantages of
working with others in groups and teams.
■ Compare and contrast primary and secondary groups.
■ Describe five virtual communication methods.
■ Identify nine group communication competencies.
“Working together works.”
—Rob Gilbert
2 Chapter 1 Introducing Group Principles and Practices
Regardless of your career choice, you will spend a considerable part of your work
life collaborating with others. One survey of Fortune 500 companies found that 81
percent use team-based approaches to organize the work that needs to be done.^1 In
addition, 77 percent use temporary teams and work groups when new projects de-
velop.^2 The typical manager spends a quarter of the workweek in group meetings. The
higher you rise in position and leadership authority, the more time you’ll spend in meet-
ings. Top-level leaders spend up to two-thirds of their time—an average of three days a
week—in meetings or preparing for meetings.^3
Not all of our collaborations are face-to-face. In the twenty-first century, our collab-
oration has dramatically increased because of our use of technology. We are hypercon-
nected. Computer power that once needed a room-size space now fits in our pocket.
We not only GoToMeetings online (thanks to GoToMeeting software), but because of
“iCommunication” devices (iPhone, iPad, iPods), numerous apps, Skype, Facebook,
Twitter, LinkedIn, and ultra-high-speed-big-data-cloud-computing methods, we are
connected to virtual groups and teams nearly all of our waking moments. Collaboration
is a daily element of our work, family, and social lives.^4
Yet despite our constant collaboration, we sometimes (even often) have difficulty
working collectively. Collaboration is hard. Collaboration takes skill. And groups can
exist for constructive as well as destructive reasons.^5 Communication researcher
Susan Sorenson coined the term grouphate to describe the dread and repulsion many
people have about working in groups, teams, or attending meetings.^6 We have good
news. Grouphate diminishes when people receive training and instruction about work-
ing in groups. The purpose of this book, therefore, is to help you learn communication
principles and become skilled in the practices that make working in groups productive
and enjoyable.
Communication is the central focus of this book. Communication makes it possible
for groups and teams to exist and function. If you use the book as a tool to help you learn
to communicate in groups, you will distinguish yourself as a highly valued group member.
H
uman beings are creatures who collaborate. We need to establish relation-
ships with others. We are raised in family groups. We are educated and
entertained in groups, and we work and worship in groups.
4 Chapter 1 Introducing Group Principles and Practices
Communication Is about Verbal and Nonverbal Messages: Words and nonverbal behav-
iors are symbols that we use to communicate and derive meaning that makes sense to us.
A symbol is something that represents a thought, concept, object, or experience. The words on this page are symbols that you are using to derive meaning that makes sense to you. Nonverbal symbols such as our use of gestures, posture, tone of voice, clothing, and jewelry primarily com- municate emotions—our feelings of joy or sadness, our likes and dislikes, or whether we’re in- terested or uninterested in others.
human Communication is transactional Live, in-person, human communication is
transactional , meaning that when we communicate, we send and receive messages simulta- neously. As you talk to someone, you respond to that person’s verbal and nonverbal messages, even while you speak. In the context of a small group, even if you remain silent or nod off to sleep, your nonverbal behavior provides information to others about your emotions and interest, or lack of interest. The transactive nature of communication suggests that you can- not not communicate. Ultimately, people judge you by your behavior, not by your intent. And since you behave in some way (even when you’re asleep), there is the potential for someone to make sense out of your behavior.
human Communication Can be Mediated through Different Channels Key ele-
ments of communication include the source, message, receiver, and channel. The source of the message is the originator of the ideas and feelings expressed. The message is the information being communicated. The receiver of the message is the person or persons who interpret the message. The channel is the means by which the message is expressed to the receiver. Do groups need to communicate face to face to be considered a group? More and more small group meetings occur in a mediated setting —a setting in which the channel of com- munication is a phone line, fiber-optic cable, wireless signal, the Internet, or other means of sending messages to others; the interaction is not face to face. In the twenty-first century, it has become increasingly easy and efficient to collaborate using the Internet, and other technologi- cal means of communicating. So, yes: A group can be a group without meeting face to face. In the past three decades we have learned more about how mediated communication can enhance group communication. For example, there is evidence that groups linked together only by e-mail or a computer network can generate more and better ideas than groups that meet face to face. 9 Such communication may, however, be hindered by sluggish feedback or delayed replies, which are not problems when we collaborate in person. And although more ideas may be generated in a mediated meeting, complex problems and relationship issues are better handled in person than on the Internet or through another mediated network.^10 In most cases, in-person communication affords the best opportunity to clarify meaning and resolve uncertainty and misunderstanding. We will discuss the use of technology in groups and teams in a section in this chapter and throughout the book in a special feature called Virtual Groups.
human Communication: essential for effective Group Outcomes Does the qual-
ity of communication really affect what a group accomplishes? Because this is a book about group communication, you won’t be surprised that our answer is yes. Researchers have debated, however, the precise role of communication in contributing to a group’s success.^11 Success de- pends on a variety of factors besides communication, such as the personality of the group mem- bers, how motivated the members are to contribute, how much information members have, and the innate talent group members have for collaboration. Nevertheless, several researchers have found that the way group members communicate with each other is crucial in determining what happens when people collaborate.^12 Research investigating the importance of small group com- munication in a variety of situations continues to increase.
What Is Small Group Communication? 5
a small Group of people
A group includes at least three people; two people are a dyad. The addition of a third person immediately adds complexity and an element of uncertainty to the transactive communication process. The probability increases that two will form a coalition against one. And although the dynamics of group roles, norms, power, status, and leadership are also present in two-person transactions, they become increasingly important in affecting the outcome of the transaction when three or more people communicate. If at least three people are required for a small group , what is the maximum number of mem- bers a group may have and still be considered small? Scholars do not agree on a specific number. However, having more than 12 people (some say 13, others say 20) in a group significantly decreases individual members’ interaction. Research documents that larger groups just aren’t as effective as smaller groups.^13 The larger the group, the less influence each individual has on the group and the more likely it is that subgroups will develop.^14 With 20 or more people, the communication more closely resembles a public-speaking situation when one person addresses an audience, providing less opportunity for all members to participate freely. The larger the group, the more likely it is that group members will become passive rather than actively involved in the discussion.
Meeting with a Common purpose
The president’s economic task force, the Connect.com company executives’ group, and your communication study group have one thing in common: Their members have a specific pur- pose for meeting. They share a concern for the objectives of the group. Although a group of people waiting for a bus or riding in an elevator may share the goal of transportation, they do not have a collective goal. Their individual destinations are different. Their primary concerns are for themselves, not for others. As soon as their individual goals are realized, they leave the bus or elevator. On the other hand, a goal keeps a committee or discussion group together un- til that goal is realized. Many groups fail to remain together because they never identify their common purpose. While participants in small groups may have somewhat different motives for their membership, a common purpose cements the group together.
Feeling a sense of belonging
Not only do group members need a mutual concern to unite them, they also need to feel they belong to the group. Commuters waiting for a bus probably do not feel part of a collective effort. Members of a small group, however, need to have a sense of identity with the group; they should be able to feel it is their group.^15 Members of a small group are aware that a group exists and that they are members of the group.
exerting influence
Each member of a small group, in one way or another, potentially influences others. Even if a group member sits in stony silence while other group members actively verbalize opinions and ideas, the silence of that one member may be interpreted as agreement by another. As we will discuss in Chapter 7, nonverbal messages have a powerful influence on a group’s climate. At its essence, the process of influencing others defines leadership. To some degree, each member of a small group exerts some leadership in the group because of his or her potential to influence others. 16 Although some groups have an elected or appointed leader, most group members have some opportunity to share in how the work gets done and how group members relate to each other. Thus, if we define the role of leader rather broadly, each group member has
What Is Team Communication? 7
between a group and a team? Our view is that teams are often more highly structured than typi- cal small groups. All teams are small groups, but not all groups operate as a team. Business and nonprofit organizations tend to use the term team rather than group to identify individuals who work together to achieve a common task. Corporate training de- partments often spend much time and money to train their employees to be better team members. What skills do such training programs focus on? Most programs cover the com- munication principles and practices that we will emphasize in this book: problem solving, decision making, listening, and conflict management. In addition to using communication skills, team members set goals, evaluate the quality of their work, and establish team op- erating procedures. 20 Research has found that people who have been trained to work to- gether in a team are, in fact, better team members. 21 So the news is good: There is evidence that learning principles and practices of group and team communication can enhance your performance. Highly effective teams usually have at least four attributes that give the term team distinct meaning. Let’s take a closer look at how distinctions are sometimes made between teams and groups.
1. Team goals are clear and specific (win the game, win the championship). 2. Teams have well-defined team-member responsibilities, such as positions on a sports team (first base, shortstop, and so on). 3. The rules for and expectations about how the team operates are spelled out; sports team competitions usually have a referee to enforce the rules of the game. 4. Teams usually develop a clear way of coordinating their efforts; sports teams discuss and practice how to work together.
teams Develop Clear, Well-Defined Goals Team goals are clear, specific, and measur-
able. They are also more than could be achieved by any individuals on the team. Research has found convincing evidence that teams that develop and use clear goals perform better than groups without clear-cut goals. 22 A sports team knows that the goal is to win the game. An ad- vertising team’s goal is to sell the most product. Yes, all groups, too, have a goal, but the goal may be less measurable or clear. A team develops a clear goal so that the members know when they’ve achieved it.
teams Develop Clearly Defined roles, Duties, and responsibilities for team
Members People who belong to a team usually have a clear sense of their particular role or
function on the team. As on a sports team, each team member has an understanding of how his or her job or responsibility helps the team achieve the goal. The roles and responsibilities of team members are explicitly discussed.^23 If one team member is absent, other team mem- bers know what needs to be done to accomplish that person’s responsibilities. Sometimes team members may be trained to take on several roles just in case a team member is absent; this kind of training is called cross-functional team-role training. Team members’ understanding other members’ responsibilities helps the team to work more effectively.^24 In a group, the participants may perform specific roles and duties, but on a team, greater care must be devoted to explicitly ensuring that the individual roles and responsibilities are clear and are linked to a common goal or outcome. In fact, the key challenge in team development is to teach individuals who are used to performing individual tasks how to work together.
teams have Clearly Defined rules for and expectations about team
Operation A third difference between groups and teams is that teams develop specific op-
erating systems to help them function well. A rule is a prescription for acceptable behavior. For
8 Chapter 1 Introducing Group Principles and Practices
example, a team may establish as a rule that all meetings will start and end on time. Another rule may be that if a team member is absent from a meeting, the absent member will contact the meeting leader after the meeting. Although expectations develop in groups, in a team those ex- pectations, rules, and procedures are often overtly stated or written down. Team members know what the rules are and how those rules benefit the entire team.
teams have Coordinated and Collaborative Methods for accomplishing the
Work A fourth difference between groups and teams involves the methods team members
use to accomplish their goals. Team members discuss how to collaborate and work together. Sports teams spend many hours practicing how to anticipate the moves of other team mem- bers so that, as in an intricate dance, all team members are moving to the same beat. Team members develop interdependent relationships; what happens to one affects everyone on the team. Of course, team members may be given individual assignments, but those assign- ments are clearly coordinated with other team members’ duties so that all members are work- ing together. Coordination and collaboration are the hallmark methods of a team. Research has found that teams that are trained to coordinate and adapt their communication with one another have greater success than teams not trained to coordinate their communication. 25 Although groups work together, they may accomplish their goal with less collaboration and coordination. Even though we’ve made distinctions between groups and teams, we are not saying they are dramatically different entities. Think of these two concepts as existing on a continuum; some gatherings will have more elements of a group, whereas others will be closer to our description of a team. Keep in mind also that all teams are small groups, which means that throughout the book when we refer to a team we will also be referring to a small group. And the principles and practices of effective small group communication will thus also apply to teams.
Characteristics of an effective team
Several researchers have been interested in studying how to make teams function better.^26 One study found that team members need work schedules compatible with those of their colleagues, adequate resources to obtain the information needed to do the work, leadership skills, and help from the organization to get the job done.^27 Another study concluded that it’s not how smart team members are, but how well they communicate that improves teamwork. 28 Using studies of several real-life teams (such as NASA, McDonald’s, and sports teams), Carl Larson and Frank LaFasto identified eight hallmarks of an effective team. The more of these characteristics a team has, the more likely it is that the team will be effective.^29
a Clear, elevating Goal Having a common, well-defined goal is the single most im-
portant attribute of an effective team. 30 But having a goal is not enough; the goal should be elevating and important—it should excite team members and motivate them to make sacri- fices for the good of the team. Sports teams use the elevating goal of winning the game or the championship. Corporate teams also need an exciting goal that all team members believe is important.
a results-Driven structure To be results-driven is to have an efficient, organized, and
structured method of achieving team outcomes. Team structure is the way in which a team is organized to process information and achieve the goal.^31 Explicit statements of who reports to whom and who does what are key elements of team structure. It is useful, therefore, for teams to develop a clear sense of the roles and responsibilities of each team member. A team needs
10 Chapter 1 Introducing Group Principles and Practices
York in 1850, changed his name to Henry Steinway, and with four of his sons started his own piano company. Since 1853 each piano has been made by a team of workers with exacting stan- dards. Steinway pianos have remained the most desired piano by concert pianists for over 100 years. Steinway pianos are found in 95 percent of all concert halls in the world because of the unflinching high standards of each piano-making team. Having high standards of excellence is an important element in a team that endures.^34
external support and recognition Teams in any organization do not operate in isola-
tion. They need support from outside the team to help acquire the information and materi- als needed to do the job. Perhaps that’s why evidence suggests that teams who have a broad social network of colleagues and friends perform better than teams who don’t have a well- developed social network. 35 Team members also need to be recognized and rewarded for their efforts by others outside the team. 36 Positive, reinforcing feedback enhances team per- formance and feelings of team importance. 37 There’s evidence that less positive support from others discourages some team members from giving their full effort; negative feedback causes more group members to not give their full effort. 38 Most coaches acknowledge the “home- field advantage” that flows from the enthusiastic support and accolades of team followers. Corporate teams, too, need external support and recognition to help them function at maxi- mum effectiveness.
principled leadership Teams need effective leaders. This is not to say that a team requires
an authoritarian leader to dictate who should do what. On the contrary, teams usually function more effectively when they adopt shared approaches to leadership. In most effective teams, leadership responsibilities are spread throughout the team. We will discuss leadership principles in more detail in Chapter 9.
Characteristics of effective team Members
One top-selling management book, The Five Dysfunctions of a Team, nominated five things team members should not do if the team wants to be effective:
1. Don’t trust other team members. 2. Fear conflict. 3. Don’t be committed to the team. 4. Avoid accountability. 5. Don’t focus on achieving results.^39
If you’ve been in a dysfunctional team, these five characteristics may be familiar to you. But rather than focusing only on what not to do, we take a more positive approach by emphasizing what researchers suggest team members should do to be effective. Here is what researchers have found enhances teamwork.^40
experience Effective team members have practical experience in managing the problems
and issues they face; they’ve “been there, done that.” Less-experienced team members tend not to see the big picture and may lack the technical background needed to accomplish the task.
problem-solving skills The ability to overcome obstacles to achieve goals is an essential
team skill. Effective team members skillfully identify and solve problems. Being indecisive, dith- ering, and shying away from team problems has a negative impact on team success.
What Is Team Communication? 11
Openness Openness is a basic ingredient for team success; having team members who are
straightforward and willing to appropriately discuss delicate issues is a predictor of team suc- cess. Team members who are not open to new ideas and who participate less are perceived as less valuable to the team.
supportiveness Supportive team members listen to others, are willing to pitch in and ac-
complish the job, and have an optimistic outlook about team success.^41 Nonsupportive members try to control team members and focus on their individual interests rather than on team interests.
action Oriented Team members who focus on “strategic doing” as well as on “strategic
thinking” are vital for team success. Effective team members respond when action needs to be taken. Procrastinating and being slow to take action reduce team effectiveness.^42
positive personal style Effective team members are motivated, patient, enthusiastic,
friendly, and well liked.^43 By contrast, being competitive, argumentative, and impatient are per- ceived as hindrances to team success.
positive Overall team perceptions Effective team members believe they have the skills
and resources to accomplish their task. 44 Team members who think they will be less effective are, in fact, less effective.^45 And team members who are more effective think they will have more positive results because of the self-perceived quality of the team.^46 Are team members effective because of a self-fulfilling prophecy (expecting to be effective causes them to act effectively)? Or do team members think they are effective because they really are outstanding? We’re not quite sure what the precise cause-and-effect relationship is between self-perceptions of being effec- tive and effective performance. Perhaps team members who are optimistic about their success
Experience, problem-
solving skills, and
supportiveness are
key characteristics
for effective teams.
What characteristics
make a baseball team
effective?
Communicating Collaboratively: Advantages and Disadvantages 13
■ (^) USE MEAN HUMOR. Use negative humor
(a joke at someone’s expense) or sarcasm.
■ (^) EXPRESS YOUR BORDEOM. Tell other team members that you are bored.
■ (^) GRAB CREDIT. Jockey for a position of
power by trying to gain personal credit for the work you do (and even don’t do).
Enacting this simple list of do’s and don’ts won’t ensure that you’ll be a competent team member, but research suggests that these be- haviors can contribute to an overall perception of competence. And if others perceive you are competent, you are more likely to behave in ways that enhance competent behavior.
Communicating Collaboratively: advantages and Disadvantages
There is no question about it: You will find yourself working in groups and teams. Collaborative projects are becoming the mainstay method of accomplishing work in all organizations. Students from kindergarten through graduate school are frequently called on to work on group projects. How do you feel about working in groups and teams? Maybe you dread attending group meetings. Perhaps you agree with the observation that a committee is a group that keeps min- utes but wastes hours. You may believe that groups bumble and stumble along until they reach some sort of compromise—a compromise with which no one is pleased. “To be effective,” said one observer, “a committee should be made up of three people. But to get anything done, one member should be sick and another absent.” By understanding both the advantages and the potential pitfalls of working collaboratively, you will form more realistic expectations while capitalizing on the virtues of group work and minimizing the obstacles to success. 50 First, we’ll identify advantages of group collaboration and then we’ll present potential disadvantages.
advantages
Your Group has More information than You Do On the TV game show Who Wants to
Be a Millionaire? contestants who phone a friend get the right answer to the question 65 percent of the time. But if the contestant asks the audience for help, they get the right answer 91 percent of the time.^51 There’s wisdom in groups and teams. Because of the variety of backgrounds and ex- periences that individuals bring to a group, the group as a whole has more information and ideas from which to seek solutions to a problem than one person would have alone. Research clearly documents that a group with diverse backgrounds, including ethnic diversity, comes up with bet- ter-quality ideas.^52 With more information available, the group is more likely to discuss all sides of an issue and is also more likely to arrive at a better solution.^53 The key, of course, is whether group members share what they know. When group members do share information, the group outcome is better than when they don’t share what they know with other group members.^54 Although group members tend to start out by discussing what they already know, groups still have the advantage of having greater potential information to share with other group members.^55
Groups stimulate Creativity Research on groups generally supports the maxim that “two
heads are better than one” when it comes to solving problems. 56 Groups usually make better decisions than individuals working alone, because groups have more approaches to or methods
14 Chapter 1 Introducing Group Principles and Practices
of solving a specific problem. A group of people with various backgrounds, experiences, and resources can more creatively consider ways to solve a problem than one person can.
You remember What You Discuss Working in groups and teams fosters improved
learning and comprehension, because you are actively involved rather than passive. Imagine that your history professor announces that the final exam is going to be comprehensive. History is not your best subject. You realize you need help. What do you do? You may form a study group with other classmates. Your decision to study with a group of people is wise; education theorists claim that when you take an active role in the learning process, your comprehension of informa- tion is improved. If you studied for the exam by yourself, you would not have the benefit of asking and answering questions of other study group members. By discussing a subject with a group, you learn more and improve your comprehension of the subject.
You are More likely to be satisfied with a Decision You help Make Group prob-
lem solving provides an opportunity for group members to participate in making decisions and achieving the group goal. Individuals who help solve problems in a group are more commit- ted to the solution and better satisfied with their participation in the group than if they weren’t involved in the discussion.
You Gain a better understanding of Yourself Working in groups helps you gain a more
accurate picture of how others see you. The feedback you receive makes you aware of personal characteristics that you may be unaware of but that others perceive. By becoming sensitive to feedback, you can understand yourself better (or at least better understand how others perceive you) than you would if you worked alone. Group interaction and feedback can be useful in help- ing you examine your interpersonal behavior and in deciding whether you want to change your communication style. Why do these advantages occur? One explanation is called social facilitation. 57 Social facilitation is the tendency for people to work harder simply because there are other people present. 58 Why does this happen? Some researchers suggest that the increased effort may oc- cur because people need and expect positive evaluations from others; some people want to be liked and they work harder when others are around so that they gain more positive feedback. Social facilitation seems to occur with greater consistency if the group task is simple rather than complex.
Disadvantages
Although working in small groups and teams can produce positive results, problems some- times occur when people congregate. Consider some of the disadvantages of working in groups. Identifying these potential problems can help you avoid them.
Group Members May pressure Others to Conform to the Majority Opinion in
Order to avoid Conflict Most people do not like conflict; they generally try to avoid it.
Some people avoid conflict because they believe that in an effective group, members readily reach agreement. But this tendency to avoid controversy in relationships can affect the quality of a group decision. What is wrong with group members reaching agreement? Nothing, unless they are agreeing to conform to the majority opinion or even to the leader’s opinion just to avoid con- flict. Social psychologist Irving Janis calls this phenomenon groupthink —when groups agree primarily in order to avoid conflict.^59 Chapter 8 discusses conflict in small groups, talks about groupthink in more detail, and suggests how to avoid it.
16 Chapter 1 Introducing Group Principles and Practices
revIew
▶ aDvantaGes anD DisaDvantaGes OF COMMuniCatinG
COllabOrativelY
advantages Disadvantages
Groups have more information. Groups are often more creative. Group work improves learning. Group members are more satisfied if they participate in the process. Group members learn about themselves.
Group members may pressure others to conform. Groups could be dominated by one person. Group members may rely too much on others and not do their part. Group work takes more time than working individually.
tasks. Not only does a group have to find a time and place where everyone can meet (sometimes a serious problem in itself), but a group simply requires more time to define, analyze, research, and solve problems than do individuals working alone. It takes time for people to talk and listen to others. And, as you’ve heard, time is money! One researcher estimates that one 2-hour meet- ing attended by 20 executives would cost the equivalent of a week’s salary for one of them.^63 Still, talking and listening in a group usually result in a better solution.
When not to Collaborate
Although we’ve noted significant advantages to working in groups and teams, our discussion of the disadvantages of groups and teams suggests there may be situations when it’s best not to collaborate. What situations call for individual work? Read on.
When the Group or team has limited time If a decision must be made quickly, it
may sometimes be better to delegate the decision to an expert. In the heat of battle, command- ers usually do not call for a committee meeting of all their troops to decide when to strike. True, the troops may be better satisfied with a decision that they have participated in making, but the obvious need for a quick decision overrides any advantages that may be gained from meeting as a group.
When an expert already has the answer If you want to know what it’s like to be presi-
dent of a university, you don’t need to form a committee to answer that question; go ask some university presidents what they do. Or, if you want to know mathematical formulas, scientific theories, or other information that an expert could readily tell you, go ask the expert rather than forming a fact-finding committee. Creating a group to gather information that an expert already knows wastes time.
When the information is readily available from research sources In this in-
formation age, a wealth of information is available with a click of a mouse. It may not be neces- sary to form a committee to chase after information that already exists. It may be helpful to put together a group or team if the information needed is extensive and several people are needed to conduct an exhaustive search. But if names, facts, dates, or other pieces of information can be quickly found in an encyclopedia or on the Internet, use those methods rather than making a simple task more complex by forming a group to get the information.^64
Communicating Collaboratively: Advantages and Disadvantages 17
When Group Members are involved in unmanageable Conflict and
Contention Although both of your authors are optimists, sometimes bringing people to-
gether for discussion and dialogue is premature. When conflict clearly may explode into some- thing worse, it may be best to first try other communication formats before putting warring parties in a group to discuss. What may be needed instead of group discussion is more structured communication, such as mediation or negotiation with a leader or facilitator. Or, if group mem- bers have discussed an issue and just can’t reach a decision, they may decide to let someone else make the decision for them. The judicial system is used when people can’t or won’t work things out in a rational, logical discussion. However, don’t avoid forming or participating in groups just because of conflict. As you will learn in Chapter 7, conflict is virtually always present in groups; disagreements can chal- lenge a group to develop a better solution. But if the conflict is intractable, another method of making the decision may be best.
Me versus We
The personal pronouns I , me, and my can be significant stumbling blocks to collaboration. A focus on individual concerns (me) can be a major challenge to collaborating with oth- ers (we). Most North Americans value individual achievement over collective group or team
To work together
effectively, individuals
must develop common
goals and a collective
focus rather than
pursuing only individual
goals. Why might some
cultures find this easier
to achieve than others?
Communicating in Different Types of Groups 19
Communicating in Different Types of Groups
There are two broad categories of groups—primary and secondary. Within these broad types, groups can be categorized according to their purpose and function. To give you an idea of the multiple types of groups you belong to, we’ll define these two broad types and then note spe- cific functions within each type.
primary Groups
A primary group is a group whose main purpose is to give people a way to fulfill their need to associate with others. It is primary in the sense that the group meets the primary human need to relate to others. The main function of the primary group is to perpetuate the group so that mem- bers can continue to enjoy one another’s company. Primary groups typically do not meet regu- larly to solve problems or make decisions, although they sometimes do both of those things.
Family Groups Your family is the most fundamental of all primary groups. In his poem “The
Death of the Hired Man,” Robert Frost mused, “Home is the place where, when you have to go there/They have to take you in.” Family communication usually does not follow a structured agenda; family conversation is informal and flows naturally from the context and content emerg- ing from the family experiences. Although family groups do accomplish things together, at the core of a family group is the association of simply being a family.
social Groups In addition to family groups you also have groups of friends who interact over
an extended period of time. These groups exist to meet the primary human need for fellowship and human interaction. As in a family group, conversation in social groups, such as your various
© Harry Bliss, 1/15/2007/www.cartoonbank.com
20 Chapter 1 Introducing Group Principles and Practices
groups of friends, is informal and typically does not have a pre-planned agenda. You associate with one another for the joy of community—to fulfill the basic human need to be social. Our fo- cus in this book is less with primary groups and more with secondary groups, which accomplish specific tasks such as problem solving, decision making, and learning.
secondary Groups
Secondary groups exist to accomplish a task or achieve a goal. Most of the groups you belong to at work or school are secondary groups. You are not involved in a committee or a class group assignment just for fun or to meet your social need for belonging (even though you may enjoy the group and make friends with other group members). The main reason you join secondary groups is to get something done. 69 There are several kinds of secondary groups to which you may belong at some point in your life.
problem-solving Groups A problem-solving group exists to overcome some unsatis-
factory situation or obstacles to achieving a goal. Many, if not most, groups in business and industry are problem-solving groups. The most common problem that any organization faces (whether it’s a for-profit business or a nonprofit group) is finding a way to make more money. Chapters 10 and 11 will review principles and suggestions for improving your group problem- solving ability.
Decision-Making Groups The task of a decision-making group is to make a choice from
among several alternatives. The group must identify what the possible choices are, discuss the consequences of the choices, and then select the alternative that best meets a need or achieves the goal of the group or parent organization.^70 A committee that screens applicants for a job has the task of making a decision. The group must select one person from among the many who apply. As we will discuss in Chapter 10, decision making is usually a part of the problem-solving process. Groups that have a problem to solve usually must identify several possible solutions and decide on the one that best solves the problem. Although all group problem solving in- volves making decisions, not all group decision making solves a problem.
study Groups As a student, you are no doubt familiar with study groups. The main goal
of these groups is to gather information and learn new ideas. We have already noted that one advantage of participating in a group is that you learn by being involved in a discussion. A study group also has the advantage of having access to more information and a wider variety of ideas through the contribution of different individuals.
therapy Groups A therapy group , also called an encounter group, support group, or
T-group, helps group members work on personal problems or provides encouragement and sup- port to help manage stress. Such groups are led by professionals who are trained to help mem- bers overcome, or at least manage, individual problems in a group setting. Group therapy takes advantage of the self-understanding that members gain as they communicate with one another. Members also learn how they are perceived by others. By participating in a therapy group, peo- ple with similar problems can benefit by learning how others have learned to cope. Groups such as Weight Watchers and Alcoholics Anonymous also provide positive reinforcement when mem- bers have achieved their goals. By experiencing therapy with others, members take advantage of the greater knowledge and information available to the group.
Committees A committee is a group of people who are elected or appointed for a specific
task. Some committees are formed to solve problems. Others are appointed to make a decision
