Download FSE 112- MODULE 1 2024/2025 with Questions and Verified Answers A+ and more Exams Public Health in PDF only on Docsity!
FSE 112- MODULE 1 2024/
What is the composition of western culture today? Is it mostly "pagan", or something else? - ✔✔The western culture composed of Europe, North America, Greece, Rome, Africa is rooted in Christian beliefs, but some of their customs are similar to the customs of the pagans. Why was the sun important to the early Egyptians? - ✔✔The Egyptians believed that the sun was the focus of the universe. All things emerged from the sun, and all things returned to the sun. The sun God Re was the dominant system of belief. Who was Osiris? What was the Cult of Osiris? - ✔✔Osiris was the god of the underworld and judge of the dead. If Osiris justified you, you passed into perpetual happiness, but if you were condemned, you were passed into perpetual misery. Osiris is also known as the God of the Dead. The cult of Osiris began its existence originally as a nature religion because Osiris was a good ruler who taught his people agriculture and gave them laws. The cult believed that entry into the world beyond did not depend of magical and mystical procedures, but it was contingent upon the candidates having lived a life free from evil. What was the Circle of Necessity? - ✔✔The term Circle of Necessity refers to the religious circuit the soul was required to make before it returned to the body. The journey took 3000 years to complete and the souls of the departed often occupied the bodies of creatures of the land, water, and air before being rejoined with their human body after the 3000 years How did the plague, or the threat of plague affect the burial customs of the early Egyptians?
- ✔✔The Egyptians were concerned with proper disposal of the dead being sanitary. They used dry burials to prevent products of putrefaction from seeping into the soil, thus generating plague. Dry burial was a cheaper form of embalming available to the Egyptians. Why was embalming practiced in the early Egyptian society? - ✔✔The Egyptians practiced embalming for religious reasons. The Egyptians were the first people to believe that the soul was immortal. The Egyptians believed that the dead would resume his normal daily
activities in the after-life; therefore, the process of embalming was done to secure future happiness. The life after death demanded preservation of the body in its natural appearance.Because the Egyptians were unable to bury their dead during the period when the Nile River was overflowing, the unburied dead created unsanitary conditions which resulted in more deaths. They practiced embalming for sanitary reasons. How did Egyptian social classes vary in their embalming techniques? - ✔✔There were three grades of embalming varying in the amount of time, attention and the quality of materials used. The most elaborate and expensive process was used for the well to do. What were canopic jars? - ✔✔Canopic jars are burial vases used to place the viscera and brain. What exactly IS "pagan"? - ✔✔The term pagan originates from the Latin paganus, which appears to have had such meanings as villager or country dweller. The early Roman Christians used pagan to refer to anyone who preferred to worship pre-Christian divinities. Over the centuries, the term pagan gradually gained the connotation of a false religion and its followers. Today the term is used to define a follower of a polytheistic religion; one who has little or no religion and who delights in sensual pleasures and material goods. What were the common beliefs of those people that were considered to be "Pagan"? - ✔✔Some beliefs common to pagans are spiritual beliefs that deity is both imminent and transcendent. Deity is perceived as both male (God) and female (goddess). Gods are identified with the sun, while goddesses are identified with the moon. Most pagans believe in reincarnation. Each pagan religion has it own philosophy about the after life and about reincarnation. Explain the types of canopic jars and the different designs on their lids or covers: - ✔✔The canopic jars had four heads, each representing four Children of Horus, the hawk-headed god of day. 1) MESTHA: the man-headed, protected the stomach and large intestines. 2) HAPI : the dog headed guarded the small intestines. 3) TUAMUTEF: the jackal-headed, watched over the lungs and heart. 4) QEBHSENNUF: the hawk-headed, protected the liver and gall bladder
covered the exterior of the coffin. Between the XII and XVIII dynasties, the shape of the coffin changed to anthropoid (man-resembling) coffin. The face of the dead was reproduced and painted in lifelike resemblance. The final development of this type is seen in the portrait coffin, which had a painted face on a wooden panel instead of a modeled head. What is a "sarcophagus"? - ✔✔Sarcophagus is the name given by the Greeks to a special marble found in Asia Minor and used in caskets. The term ?sarcophagus? later designated any elaborate burial casket not sunk underground. The oldest know examples are from Egypt; they are box shaped with a separate lid. What are "Hieroglyphics"? - ✔✔Hieroglyphics is a system of writing mainly in pictorial characters. The hieroglyphic system of writing included three separate types of characters: pictographic, syllabic and alphabetic. Hieroglyphic inscriptions covered the exterior of the coffins. There were inscriptions of prayers, genealogies, religious and magical texts that were intended to help the restoration of the body and to give power to the dead in the afterlife. Early Egyptian coffins changed to an anthropoidal or anthropomorphical design or shape. What exactly does this mean? - ✔✔The shape of the coffin resembled that of a man. A person that dealt with the dead in funerary practices during Egyptian times was thought to be of what social standing or class? - ✔✔The priest (Kher-heb) superintended embalming and funeral arrangements. . Who were the individual persons or "specialists" that prepared the body for burial during the period of the early Egyptians? What job did each perform? - ✔✔1. The Designer or Painter: 2. The Dissector or Anatomist: emboweled and washed the body3. Pollinctor or Apothecary: administered injections of aromatic powders, oils, balsams, tincture and spirits to anoint the body.4. Embalmer or Surgeon: performed the embalming process5. Physician and Priest: instructed the other in ceremonies In what kind of afterlife did the Greeks believe? - ✔✔They believed in an afterlife of disembodies souls. Their conception of the afterlife involved the separation of the soul from the body and its journey into an eternal and immortal afterlife.
The Greeks are thought to be responsible for the introduction of cremation. Why was cremation important to the Greeks? - ✔✔Cremation was important to the Greeks because of their belief in a disembodied existence. They believed that the flames had power to set the soul free. The ashes of the dead were still thought to have spirit characteristics. What was the Cult of Dionysius? - ✔✔The cult of Dionysius (god of wine) was a popular cult that believed in an immortal life of the soul. Their rites were intended to produce a wild excitement in which the limitations of ordinary sense life seemed to be abolished. What were the Elysian Fields? - ✔✔Elysian Fields were a happy otherworld for heroes favored by the gods. Elysian is a part of the underworld and a pleasant abode for the righteous dead. It is here where the soul went when it was united with the cult god. How did the Greeks prepare their dead for burial or cremation? - ✔✔Relatives or friends, usually a female, closed the eyes and mouth as soon as death occurred. Family members usually prepared the body for burial. Women chosen from the next-of-kin washed the body with warm water. Female relatives also dressed the body that was considered a sacred duty. It was customary to bury the dead with clothing. There was no serious attempt to embalm, but the body was anointed with oils, perfumes and spice because of their belief in a shadowy afterlife. Flowers, along with a honey cake for the dog, Cereberus, were furnished for the dead body. (Cereberus was the 3-headed dog hat guarded the entrance to Hades.) The dead was dressed in white and laid out in state within a day after death. What was unique about the Greek funeral procession? - ✔✔The Greek funeral procession allowed any man to join the march to the grave, but every woman was denied unless she was over 60 years old or related to the deceased by blood and was over the age of 16. This was unique because females prepared the body for burial but unless they met certain criteria, they weren?t allowed in the funeral procession to the burial. The Greeks had special coffins and tombs. Explain and describe each of the different types of tombs utilized by the Greeks: - ✔✔The coffins consisted of wood, stone or baked clay. Cypress wood was used in the later periods. Stone was the most popular material used even though it was heavy. Baked clay was decorated with painted with floral designs.
Who generally practiced cremation and who generally avoided cremation during the era of Roman rule and government? - ✔✔Cremation was normal practice during the period of the Republic and the 1st century after Christ. Under the Roman Empire, fire burial was replaced by inhumation. These changes occurred due to the rise in Christianity and the spread of oriental mystery cults and their hate of fire. It is important that pomp and circumstance were important to the Roman higher social class, and many avoided cremation simply because they couldn?t ?put on a show? when cremating. The rise of Christianity stressed the hallowed nature of the body and Christians naturally wanted to follow Christ- even to His mode of burial. Classes were important in Roman culture. What were some distinctive differences in life and death among the different Roman classes? - ✔✔Persons of upper class were put on display for as long as a week, giving many opportunities for mourners to pay their respect. Professional undertakers took charge of the funeral arrangements for the well-to-do class. Lower class members were cremated after only one day. Just as the Egyptians had different individuals that carried out various functions pertaining to the disposal of the dead, the Romans also had these functionaries. What were the five "major" individuals that provided funerary care, and what did each actually do? - ✔✔Pollinctores: slaves or employees of the libitinarius who performed the embalming. Libitinarius: the Roman equivalent of the head undertaker. He supplied hired mourners, mourning costumes, other accessories for funeral and arranged services to ease the grief of bereaved, and arranged the details of funeral procession with the designator. Libitina: the goddess of the corpses and funerals. Praeco: crier summoned by the participants to a public funeral. Designator: the assistant to the pollinctores, who acted as master of ceremonies and director of the funeral procession. How did Roman funeral processions vary according to class? - ✔✔The funeral procession of ordinary citizens was simple while those citizens of wealth and importance had a costly public parade. The ordinary funerals were held at night while persons of higher status were buried by day. Torchbearers were present both at both night and day ceremonies. The procession for the ordinary funeral consisted of: a band of musicians in the lead, the body carried on the shoulders of the sons or other relatives, family and friends. The procession of a higher status person was marshaled with all possible display and ostentation. The designator arranged the order of the procession. At the head of the procession was usually a band of musicians, persons singing praises of the dead, bands of
jesters and buffoons, wax masks of dead man?s ancestors, memorials of the great deeds of the deceased, the family (including freedman and slaves) and friends. What are some examples of hired mourners that were used by the Romans? - ✔✔Hired mourners were usually professionally women who shrieked and beat their breast with abandon. As the ceremony came to a close, the frenzy of their sorrow climaxed with a triple ceremonial farewell, conclamatio mortis, calling out of the dead, as tearing their hair, rending their garments and scratching their faces until they drew blood, they circled the coffin three times, shrieking out the name of the deceased. Who was Constantine? - ✔✔Constantine was the first Christian Emperor (314 AD? 379 AD). How did Constantine and Christianity affect Roman funeral behavior? - ✔✔Inhumation replaced cremation because of the increase in Christianity and changes in attitudes about afterlife. What were the death beliefs of the early Hebrew culture? - ✔✔It was difficult for the Hebrews to conceive of a clear-cut separation of body and soul. They regarded man as composed of two elements? flesh and breath. The breath was a spirit like substance that dwelt in life within the flesh. At death, the flesh returned to dust, but the breath persisted. The Hebrews believe the dead posses certain supernatural powers. They also believed that the corpse kept a close connection with the dead body. The soul led a shadowy afterlife in a netherworld called Sheol. After 150 B. C. Hebrews believed that after death, the souls of the righteous passed to a blessed existence and the souls of the wicked passed to a state of punishment. Both the righteous and wicked souls would be raised from the netherworld at the day of the last judgment to receive their final rewards and punishment. How did the Hebrew beliefs vary from the Christian beliefs? - ✔✔The Hebrews did not believe in touching the body because it was contaminating, where as the Christians had a ritual, Kiss of Peace, where the family kissed the body and was encouraged to touch the body. What were the burial customs of the early Hebrews? - ✔✔The early Hebrews closed the eyes and mouth of the dead right after death. The body was washed, anointed with sweet
be suspected.During the reign of Constantine the Great, cremation was prohibited in Christendom, but Christianity as a whole has never taken a final stand in the matter. Were classes important in determining Christian burial? Why yes or why no? - ✔✔Classes were not important in determining Christian burial because the Christians believed that all men are equal in death. Unlike the belief of the Egyptians and Greeks, Christians believed that eternal rewards are not assigned according to earthly rank. Christ Himself proclaimed that all men had an equal hope of the Kingdom of Heaven. What was the role of the Christian family when a death occurred? - ✔✔The Christian family administered to the dying and took charge of the care of the dead. Elder women? kindred and friends of the family - performed the acts of closing the eyes, closing the mouth, washing the body, and wrapping in it in a linen sheet. Relatives were allowed to view the face of the deceased and to touch the body. The Christian had a ?Kiss of Peace? rite in which the either immediately after death or at the closing of the casket, a final kiss was given to the body. Family and friends usually dressed in white to mourn the body. How did the Early Christians prepare the deceased for burial? - ✔✔Christian prepared the body by washing the body. Then the body was anointed with oils and spices as a means of preservation, a means of preventing contamination, and a means to counteract the odor of decay. The early Christians used practiced a "wake". What was it? Why did they have it? How would it differ from the wake or visitation of today? - ✔✔The early Christian wake was a practice in which relatives and intimates viewed the face of the deceased and gathered to say prayers for the repose of the deceased. The purpose of the wake was to scrutinize for signs of life while praying that the dead be loosened from their sins. A second purpose to the wake was to give comfort to the bereaved family.Outbursts of grief were at a minimum among the Christians. The Christian wake occurred either in the home or the church.The early Christian wake differs from the wake of today in the location. Today?s wakes are not held at the home, but either in the funeral home or the church. People today don?t look at the body for signs of life during a wake. A visitation today serves the purpose of giving emotional support to the family and paying respect to the deceased. What were the traits of early Christian cemeteries? - ✔✔Because of the persecution of Christians, the early Christian cemeteries were underground so that they could meet and
perform their religious rites. The Christian church always demanded that the site of interment obtain a special religious significance. The early burials were in family vaults erected outside the walls. Because of sanitary reasons, there were no burials in the cities. When persecution came to an end at the close of the fourth century, Christians began to have open-air cemeteries as a sign of their new freedom. Cemeteries where located mostly between the walls and the vicinity of the churches even though Roman law had decreed that burial be beyond the city wall because of sanitary reasons. The burial practices became more complex to the Christians. Why were more burials (and worship) were held in the catacombs. What were catacombs? - ✔✔Burials and worship were held in the catacombs because of the persecution of Christians. These underground hideaways provided a safe shelter for the performance of their religious rites. The catacombs were originally galleries, chambers and passages, hewn out of soft rock, with public entrances. Catacombs originated in the tombs of the wealthy Christians. What were early Christian processions like? - ✔✔The Christian funeral processions emphasized a subdued and reverent attitude and a sense of triumph since death was perceived as a victory, marking the beginning of a better life. The funeral procession was limited to the body, its bearers and the family and friends of the deceased. Torches were carried at the head of the procession to symbolize both the glory into which it was hoped that the dead had come, and the triumph of his new state. Psalms and hymns were sung in the procession. Did the early Christians have persons that carried out specialized duties pertaining to the care of the dead? If so who were they and what did they do? - ✔✔Early Christian funeral functions were carried out by the brethren of the dead under the direction of the clergy. The decani were the overseers of the burial parties that worked in groups performing different functions such as preparing the body for the religious procession, carrying the body, and digging the grave. Two classes of minor functionaries were assigned to visit the sick and bury the dead. The Parabolani class cared for the sick. The laborantes, lectarri, fossarii, sandapilarii and decanii had the responsibility of digging graves, carrying coffins, placing the remains in the ground and performing other related services. These functionaries were forerunners of the modern undertaker. What were the death beliefs of the Early Germans and Scandinavians? - ✔✔§ The spirits of the dead were harmful and, if not properly buried, could return the plague to the living§ In
What were the "Leagues of Prayer"? - ✔✔Leagues of Prayers were developed because of the purgatorial doctrine. This was a burial organization and not a religious one. The members of the League of Prayer were devoted to burying the dead and praying for the souls of the faithful departed. What was the Purgatorial Doctrine? Who believed in it and who fought against it? - ✔✔Purgatorial Doctrine is a doctrine that makes a distinction between venial sins and mortal sins. A venial sin is an offense against God and merits only temporal punishment. It is more easily pardoned than mortal sin. ?Mortal sin? is a grievous offense against the law of God and deprives one of a supernatural life and brings damnation and death of the soul. Those guilty of mortal sin go to hell, not to purgatory. The doctrine of Purgatory offers a second change to sinners.The Catholics believed in the purgatorial doctrine while the leaders of the Reformation (Martin Luther), the Orthodox Church and the Protestants rejected this doctrine because it was unbiblical. Explain the concept of Purgatory: - ✔✔Purgatory is a concept of what happens at death. The soul is in a state of purgation meaning the souls are not perfectly cleaned and must undergo the process of cleaning before it can enter heaven. The living are encouraged to offer Masses, prayer and other acts of piety on behalf of those in purgatory. Purgatory will end with the Last Judgment at the close of the world. What was the importance of the Steward of the Guild? - ✔✔The Steward of the Guild was a member of a guild who made the necessary funeral arrangements that included a Requiem Mass, burial with solemnity, the payment of the mortuary fee and a liberal distribution of alms. What was a Soul Shot? - ✔✔Soul shot was the mortuary fee. A penny paid for the good of one?s soul. Explain what a "death watch" was during the Middle Ages: - ✔✔?Death Watch? was the announcement of the demised made by the human voice because of the lack of newspapers and printed death notices. This function was originally with the purgatorial doctrine, but later because the ?Death Crier? or ?Death Watch?. This person dressed in black and rang a bell to announce a death and the time of death.
What were the traits of the Wake during the Middle Ages? - ✔✔The wakes in the Middle Ages were lively - singing, rejoicing, drunkenness and laughter. This custom of behaving riotously was widespread. By the 14th century, disorder at wakes had gone beyond rioting to a new custom of ?rousing the ghost?. The dead were ?raised? by playing practical jokes on superstitious relatives to frighten them. What were some of the ways in which the people of the Middle Ages celebrated deaths or the conclusion of the funeral ceremonies? - ✔✔The people of the Middle Ages celebrated deaths with funeral fests for welcoming the principal heir to his new estate. ?Averil? was the old word for funeral feast meaning ?heir ale? or ?succession ale?. Another common practice in medieval England was to place a cup of wine in the coffin next to body. The mourners felt like they established communion with the dead by drinking of it. . What was an effigy? Why was it used and it what instances would it be used? - ✔✔Effigy was a waxed death mask. It usually made of a great personage (nobility). It was common for the effigy to be exhibited in church upon the catafalque, in place of the real body, because of a hygienic and aesthetic necessity. This was the custom because the funeral of a noble lasted for many days in the hot weather. What were the characteristics of tombs and monuments during the Middle Ages? - ✔✔The beginnings of Christian sepulchral monuments were stone coffins whose lid formed continuous portion of the pavement of the churches. Later it was customary to mark the monument with a carved symbol to express piety or an emblem to tell the occupation or position of deceased. Later, carving an effigy of the dead in stone was practiced. Effigies were first carved with wood and then later brass. Tombs were eventually raised above pavement level.The cost, beauty and magnificence of some of the monuments were great? enriched with semi- precious and precious stones and adorned with life-like figures of solid brass. Discuss the Plagues or Black Death. What caused them? How many people did they affect? How did they affect funerary practices? - ✔✔The Plague was an epidemic that killed many people (as many as 10,000 in a day). The most severe form of the Plague is Black Death. It was called Black Death because of the black spots it produced in the skin.A bacillus in black rats caused bubonic plague. Fleas transmitted the disease to people. Once people are infected, they infect others very rapidly. The disease seemed to disappear in winter because fleas were dormant.68,596 deaths out of a 460,000 population occurred during The Great
an affidavit that a woolen shroud was used, or pay a heavy fine. The act was repealed in
Mourning colors and fashion changed much during the Middle Ages. Discuss the color and style changes in mourning attire: - ✔✔White was the color of mourning worn throughout Western Europe. The vogue of black was adopted when Ann, the widow of Charles VIII of France wore black in mourning and set a new fashion statement. Today, black is generally the approved color for mourning, but white coffins for children are still customary. The French King Louis XI took purple as the mourning color of the French court. Purple is now used to designate death and mourning for royalty and many Christian groups. What was the code of conduct and required clothing for the widow of the Middle Ages: - ✔✔Because marriage was regarded indissoluble and sacramental, re-marriage was frowned upon unless the widow was a very young woman. Prior to the 15th century, a widowed queen kept her black draped apartment for a year after her husband?s death.The higher their rank, the more rigidly women were bound by the mourning etiquette of their times. The widow of an important man retired to a convent, garbed as a nun. Customs of dress for widows included wearing a barbe, a long pleated arrangement of fine linen. The position of the barbe depended on the rank. The lower orders wore it beneath the chin, and those above rank of baroness wore above the chin.Other required clothing:Widow?s bonnet: derived from nun?s habit and covering faceWidow?s cap: represents ancient custom of cutting off the hair as a sign of mourningWidow?s cuffs: symbol of mourning also stemmed from the convent. There was a practice of sprinkling a handful of earth (dirt) on the corpse where did this practice originate? - ✔✔The practice originated from the Romans. It was the Roman culture to cover a body found unburied with at least three handfuls of earth while reciting the ceremonious farewell. The Jews had a practice involving a bag of earth. What was the practice? - ✔✔The Jews placed a bag of earth in the coffin and each mourner helped fill the grave with earth. What was a "Sin Eater"? - ✔✔A ?sin-eater? was a male scapegoat. It was believed that by eating a loaf of bread and drinking a bowl of beer over a body, and by accepting a six-pence, a man was able to take unto himself the sins of the deceased, whose ghost thereafter, could no longer wander.
Why did the practice of burying the dead with their feet to the east begin? - ✔✔This practice began with the Christians burying clergy with their feet to the east. They believed that Christ would there appear to summon the world to judgment. The clergy would be the first to arise and lead their flocks to the great tribunal, Discuss the Medieval preoccupation with the physical side of death: - ✔✔The Middle Ages manifested an intense preoccupation with the physical side of death. The bodies of executed prisoners were suspended from trees so that others might profit from the lesson. Poets sang of death as robbing the body of beauty, power and sensuality. Statues and woodcuts displayed death at its most horrible. Plays of the Middle Ages were called ?morality plays?, where the plots were centered around death. There was also a death dance that came about as a result of the preoccupation of death. Man was more engrossed with the disposition of the body rather than with the afterlife of the soul. The theme of the dance macabre was conceived and leads to the dancing skeleton. Person became more occupied with the fear of dying and decaying with other corpses. What was the sexton? What his role concerning the care of the dead? - ✔✔The occupation of a sexton emerged with the growth of churchyard burials. The sexton was originally an under officer of the church who took care of the church property, ringing of the bells and frequently the digging of graves. Discuss incidents involving independent bone and/or heart burial: - ✔✔Independent burial of the heart grew from the practice of dismembered fragments of the bodies of saints and martyrs being preserved and regarded as holy relics. Incidents of persons whose heart was preserved as relics include: St. Ignatius, St. George, St. Beniot and St. Catherine of Sienna.Bones were buried separate for those noble, rich and important persons who died at a distance from their homes. Their bodies were cut up and boiled to extract the bones. The bones were placed in a chest and returned home while the other parts were buried near the place of death. Pope Boniface III outlawed this practice because it was so savage, but Englishmen who died in France during the Hundred Year War were boiled. Discuss embalming during the Middle Ages: What was involved in the procedure? Why was it performed? - ✔✔Embalming was not common in the Middle Ages because Christians felt it was against the Christian Doctrine, and embalming was associated with afterlife beliefs. There is evidence that a small amount of embalming was performed as anatomists and
surgeons had no medical training. Barber-surgeons were called surgeons of the Short Robes.Barber-surgeons were important to funeral services in that because of their skill in surgery, they exercised the domain over the right to embalm. They took measure to see that their members were fit to carry out the practice of surgery and embalming and addressed the law with the voice of authority. The obtained a formal decree that they had the right to embalm. What were the functions and limitations of the early English funeral undertaker? - ✔✔The term ?undertaker? describes someone who ?undertakes? a task. The undertaker provided some of the funeral paraphernalia such as coffins and other funeral goods. The herald was responsible for supervising the funerals. Many craftsmen were involved in early coffin making and in the production of funerary goods. Who were some of the occupations involved? - ✔✔Occupations involved in funerary goods were: carpenters, cabinet-makers, joiners and other workers in wood. Who was Edwin Chadwick and what did he contribute to funeral service of his time and our time? - ✔✔Edwin Chadwick was a member of the Poor Law Commission who investigated sanitary conditions and means of improving them. The cholera years of 1831-1833 and the thousands of deaths it caused prompted Chadwick to research sanitation. He published the Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Population of Great Britain. He recommended that cemeteries be municipalized and ?trading cemeteries? abolished. He also recommended that a medical officer should be required to certify before burial as to the fact and cause of death. His contributions were the forerunner of the public health system that we have today with laws to protect the public when dealing with the dead. The sanitation movement led by Chadwick influenced the reforms of today?s existing burial ground and the jurisdiction of cemeteries. Who were the "Poor Law Commissioners"? - ✔✔• The Poor Law Commissioners was an agency responsible for investigation of the poor laws and for suggestion legislation to improve poor relief.
