Health in the late pre-colonial and early
colonial period in the Philippines
Sigrid Lorraine S. Labidon
A thesis submitted for the degree of
Master of Science
at the University of Otago
Dunedin, New Zealand
June 2012
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Prehistory & Archaeology of Southeast Asia: Human Occupation, Migration & Health, Study notes of Prehistory
An overview of studies on prehistory in Southeast Asia, with a focus on evidence of human occupation, Austronesian migration, and health. Topics include the preservation of lithics, shells, and faunal remains, the Out-of-Taiwan hypothesis, and dental pathology. The document also discusses the prevalence of various diseases and conditions, such as LEH, DJD, and vitamin D deficiency.
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Health in the late pre-colonial and early
colonial period in the Philippines
Sigrid Lorraine S. Labidon
A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Science at the University of Otago Dunedin, New Zealand
June 2012
i
Abstract
Bioarchaeology, the study of skeletal remains from archaeological sites, is useful in understanding the health of past populations. Information on health of past populations is important in a holistic interpretation of the past and also helps in understanding the current health trends within a population. The use of a biocultural approach in bioarchaeology is essential in understanding the interactions between culture and biology and how it affects the way people live. In Southeast Asia, bioarchaeological studies on prehistoric health have been accomplished in recent years. This improvement in the bioarchaeological literature of Southeast Asia has provided essential information about the past life of Southeast Asians. However, these studies are mainly focused on continental Southeast Asia while studies on skeletal remains from island Southeast Asia focus on origins of current populations and paleoanthropological research. This thesis aims to address the gap in bioarchaeological literature in island Southeast Asia by examining several skeletal samples for evidence of health and disease from the pre-colonial and colonial period in the Philippines.
The individuals from the Philippines were assessed for age and sex. The prevalence of skeletal and oral pathologies of the individuals from the two time periods were analyzed and compared. A summary of the archaeological and historical background of Southeast Asia and the Philippines was presented to provide a context of the samples. A review of the diseases likely to be seen in skeletal remains from the Philippines and the lesions they produce was also accomplished.
The individuals from the colonial period had a higher prevalence of both skeletal and oral pathologies, suggesting a decline in health with the onset of colonialism. This result is consistent with historical evidence indicating a decline in health among Filipinos during the early colonial period. A comparison of pathologies from the pre-colonial period to similar time periods in mainland Southeast Asia indicates that the individuals from island Southeast Asia had better health and were subjected to less stress than those from the continental region. The archaeological and historical background of both regions suggests a difference in lifestyle which had most probably contributed to the difference in health status of the individuals from continental and island Southeast Asia. However, the examination of more skeletal samples is needed to further assess this difference in health among individuals from the two regions.
iii
Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. ii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables.......................................................................................................................................... vi
- Chapter 1 – INTRODUCTION List of Figures ix
- Introduction
- Regional and Temporal Context..............................................................................................
- Aims
- Objectives............................................................................................................................................
- Limitations of the Study
- Thesis Structure
- Introduction
- Chapter 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW
- Southeast Asian Prehistory and Early History
- Environment
- Initial Settlers
- The Austronesian Migration..................................................................................................
- The Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network
- The Development of Southeast Asian States
- The Neolithic and Metal Age in Southeast Asia
- Colonial History
- The Prehistory and Early History of the Philippines
- Prehistoric Environment
- Settlement of the Philippines.................................................................................................
- Relations with other Southeast Asian States before the arrival of Europeans.......................
- European Contact Period.......................................................................................................
- Bioarchaeology in Southeast Asia.....................................................................................................
- Bioarchaeological Studies in Southeast Asia
- Paleodemography
- Diet and Oral Health
- Isotope Analysis
- Growth and Disruptions of Growth
- Lifestyle and Activities
- Skeletal Pathologies iv
- Interpretation of Health Using Skeletal Remains
- Chapter Summary..............................................................................................................................
- Southeast Asian Prehistory and Early History
- Chapter 3 – MATERIALS AND METHODS
- The Samples
- Ille Cave, Palawan (IV-1998-P)
- Sibaltan, Palawan (IV-2010-G1)
- Bongabong, Mindoro (IV-2005-I)
- Catanauan, Quezon Province (IV-2008-Q5)
- Methods
- Aging
- Sexing....................................................................................................................................
- Antemortem and Postmortem Damage
- Skeletal Pathologies
- Oral Pathologies
- Statistical Analysis
- Chapter Summary............................................................................................................................
- The Samples
- Chapter 4 – RESULTS
- Age and Sex Estimation
- Pre-colonial samples
- Spanish period samples
- Skeletal Pathologies
- Pre-colonial samples
- Spanish period samples
- Summary of Skeletal Pathologies in the samples
- Case Studies
- Burial
- Burial
- Oral Pathologies
- Dental Census......................................................................................................................
- Pre-colonial samples
- Spanish period samples
- Summary of Oral Pathologies in the samples
- Non-specific indicators of stress
- Cribra orbitalia
- Linear Enamel Hypoplasia (LEH).......................................................................................
- Chapter Summary............................................................................................................................
- Age and Sex Estimation
vi
List of Tables
Chapter 2 – Literature Review
Table 2.1. Bioarchaeological sites in Southeast Asia and the dates of the burials.................. 36
Chapter 3 – Materials and Methods
Table 3.1. Archaeological sites in the Philippines where skeletal remains were examined for this study............................................................................................................................ 80
Chapter 4 – Results
Table 4.1. The distribution of individuals from the pre-colonial sample according to age... 132
Table 4.2. The distribution of adult individuals in the pre-colonial sample according to age and sex.................................................................................................................................... 132
Table 4.3. The distribution of individuals from the Spanish period samples according to age.......................................................................................................................................... 133
Table 4.4. The distribution of adult individuals in the Spanish period sample according to age and sex......................................................................................................................... 133
Table 4.5. Preservation of individuals from the Pre-colonial period and the Spanish period...................................................................................................................
Table 4.6. The distribution of individuals with skeletal pathologies from the pre-colonial sample according to age. ....................................................................................................... 135
Table 4.7. The distribution of adult individuals with skeletal pathologies from the pre-colonial sample according to age and sex....................................................................... 136
Table 4.8. The location of skeletal pathologies from the pre-colonial sample according to age.......................................................................................................................................... 136
Table 4.9. The distribution of individuals with skeletal pathologies from the Spanish period samples according to age....................................................................................................... 139
Table 4.10. The distribution of adult individuals with skeletal pathologies from the Spanish period samples according to age and sex............................................................................... 139
Table 4.11. The location of skeletal pathologies from the Spanish period samples according to age...................................................................................................................................... 139
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Table 4.12. Subadults vs Adults Fisher’s exact test p-values for skeletal pathologies. All adult samples were combined to increase sample size. Skeletal lesions due to degenerative changes were not included in the comparison..................................................................................... 140
Table 4.13. The location of skeletal pathologies from the adult individuals of the Spanish period samples according to sex............................................................................................ 140
Table 4.14. Males vs. Females Fisher’s exact test p-values for skeletal pathologies. P-values in bold indicates a statistically significant difference............................................................ 140
Table 4.15. Adult individuals with recorded dentition from both samples............................ 156
Table 4.16. Number of teeth from both samples according to tooth type.............................. 156
Table 4.17. Subadult individuals with recorded teeth from the Spanish period samples...... 156
Table 4.18. Distribution of alveolar resorption from the pre-colonial burials per tooth type according to age group. A – number of affected teeth, O – number of observed teeth........................................................................................................................................ 157
Table 4.19. Distribution of alveolar resorption from the pre-colonial burials per tooth type according to sex.............................................................................................................. 157
Table 4.20. Distribution of pathologies from the Spanish period burials per tooth type according to adult age group.......................................................................................... 159
Table 4.21. Distribution of pathologies from the Spanish period burials per tooth type according to subadult age group.................................................................................... 160
Table 4.22. Distribution of pathologies from the Spanish period burials per tooth type according to sex.............................................................................................................. 160
Table 4.23. Distribution of caries from the Spanish period burials per tooth type according to adult age group.................................................................................................. 162
Table 4.24. Distribution of caries from the Spanish period burials per tooth type according to subadult age group. Only deciduous dentition is shown since no permanent dentition had evidence of caries........................................................................... 163
Table 4.25. Distribution of caries from the Spanish period burials per tooth type according to sex..................................................................................................................... 163
Table 4.26. Distribution of calculus from the Spanish period burials per tooth type according to adult age group.................................................................................................. 164
Table 4.27. Distribution of calculus from the Spanish period burials per tooth type according to sex..................................................................................................................... 164
ix
List of Figures
Chapter 1 – Introduction
Figure1.1. The Southeast Asian region. Photo from www.southchinasea.org (Sarr 2011)....... 3
Chapter 2 – Literature Review
Figure2.1. Map of Southeast Asia showing the four different lobes based on Solheim’s hypothesis............................................................................................................... 19
Figure 2.2. A map of Thailand showing the archaeological sites mentioned in this study. Map adapted from Harris and Tayles (2012)........................................................................... 37
Figure 2.3. A map of Vietnam showing the archaeological sites mentioned in the study. Map adapted from Oxenham et al (2002)................................................................................ 43
Figure 2.4. A map of Malaysia featuring the archaeological sites mentioned in this study. Map adapted from Majid (2005b)............................................................................................ 45
Figure 2.5. Map of Taiwan showing the Shi San Hang site from Pietrusewsky and Tsang (2003)..................................................................................................................... 48
Chapter 3 – Materials and Methods
Figure 3.1. The Ille Cave site with the two mouths pictured. The photo on the top shows the view from the front of the cave, with the east mouth entrance on the right side and the obscured west mouth entrance on the left side. The photo on the bottom shows the view from inside the main chamber of the cave with the west mouth on the right and the east mouth on the left. Photos taken by Shawn O’Donnell......................... 72
Figure 3.2. The Manunggul jar from Palawan (left) and the Maitum jar from South Cotabato (right). Photos from the National Museum of the Philippines website (2011).......................................................................................................................... 80
Figure 3.3. A map of the Philippines showing the locations of the archaeological sites mentioned in this study.................................................................................................... 81
Figure 3.4. Phases of pubic symphyseal changes based on the Todd method (White and Folkens 2005)....................................................................................................... 80
Figure 3.5. Phases of pubic symphyseal changes based on the Suchey-Brooks method (Katz and Suchey 1989; Suchey and Katz 1998).................................................................... 80
Figure 3.6. Phases in auricular surface changes according to age (Lovejoy et al. 1985b; White and Folkens 2005)..................................................................... 82
Figure 3.7. Phases of sternal rib end changes (Iscan 1991)..................................................... 82
Figure 3.8. Dental eruption chart taken from White (2005) adapted from Ubelaker (1989)... 84
Figure 3.9. Variations in width of the greater sciatic notch of the pelvic bone (White and Folkens 2005). The notch marked as 1 is characteristic of a female sciatic notch while 5 is typical among males............................................................... 87
x
Figure 3.10. The ventral arc and subpubic concavity of the pelvic bone of a male and a female (White and Folkens 2005)................................................................................. 87
Figure 3.11. The pelvic inlet and subpubic angle of the pelvic bone of a female and a male (White and Folkens 2005).................................................................................... 88
Figure 3.12. The medial aspect of the ischio-pubic ramus of a male and a female pelvic bone (White and Folkens 2005).................................................................................... 88
Figure 3.13. Sexually dimorphic features of the skull scaled from 1 to 5 (White and Folkens 2005). 1 represents a more female characteristic while 5 is more typical of males........................................................................................................ 89
Figure 3.14. An example of an osteoblastic (left) lesion from individual 2 from Bongabong and osteolytic (right) lesion from individual 3 from Ille Cave. Photos taken by author............................................................................................................. 91
Figure 3.15. Scale for the degree of porosity on articular surfaces. The left picture shows tiny pinprick holes while the middle one shows the coalescing of the tiny holes to form bigger porosities. The picture on the right shows a more severe form of porosity with medium to large holes on the surface of the vertebral bodies. Vertebrae on photos are from individual 2247 from Ille Cave. Photos taken by author........................................................ 93
Figure 3.16. Scale for the degree of lipping around the joint. The left picture shows minimal lipping on the right side as indicated by the arrows. The middle picture shows moderate lipping on the lateral sides of the vertebral body while the picture on the right shows severe osteophyte formation on the right side of the vertebral body. Vertebrae on photos are from individual 2 from Bongabong. Photos taken by author............................................................................................................. 93
Figure 3.17. DJD of the cervical vertebrae (left) and eburnation of the lateral condyle of the femur (right). The photo on the left is the 3rd^ to 7th^ cervical vertebrae of individual 2 from Bongabong taken by the author. The photo of he eburnation on the right is from the Museum of London website (Henderson 2009).......... 95
Figure 3.18. Intervertebral disc disease in the cervical vertebrae. Photo from Waldron (2009, p.44)............................................................................................ 96
Figure 3.19. Schmorl’s nodes on a lumbar vertebra. Photo from the Museum of London website (2005)........................................................................................................ 97
Figure 3.20. Rheumatoid arthritis on the elbow joint. Photo from Waldron (2009, p. 72)..... 98
Figure 3.21. Radiograph of an individual with erosive osteoarthritis on the right hand. The gull wing and saw tooth marks characteristic of erosive OA are indicated by the arrows. Photo from www.discoverymedicine.com (Anandarajah 2010)........................... 99
Figure 3.22. Ankylosing spondylitis. Photo from Waldron (2009, p.57)............................. 101
Figure 3.23. Radiograph of gout on a hand joint with the hook-like lesions marked by the arrow. Photo from www.learningradiology.com (LearningRadiology.com 2002)..... 102
xii
Chapter 4 - Results
Figure 4.1. The age at death distribution of individuals from the pre-colonial sample......... 132
Figure 4.2. The age at death distribution of individuals from the Spanish period samples... 134
Figure 4.3. Bone formation on the foot phalanx of mid-adult male T4C82 (left) and adult male T6C57 (right) from the pre-colonial sample........................................................ 136
Figure 4.4. Bone deposition on the femoral shaft of mid-adult male T6C144 from the pre-colonial sample.......................................................................................................... 137
Figure 4.5. The location of skeletal pathologies from the Spanish period samples according to age..................................................................................................................... 140
Figure 4.6. The location of skeletal pathologies from the Spanish period samples according to sex..................................................................................................................... 141
Figure 4.7. Two examples of cranial pathologies from the Spanish period burials. The top photo shows new bone formation on the endocranial surface of a subadult skull from burial 1807 from Ille Cave and the bottom photo shows remodelled cribra orbitalia from burial 21, a young adult female from Sibaltan. Photos taken by author......... 142
Figure 4.8. Examples of skeletal pathologies from the lower limbs from the Spanish period burials. The top two photos show new bone formation on the left (top left) and right (top right) tibiae of individual 1807. The middle left and bottom left photos show new bone formation on the shaft of the right tibia of individuals 722 and 723 respectively. The middle right photo shows bone formation on the right femoral shaft of individual 2255 while the bottom right photo shows a similar formation on the femoral shaft of individual 2249. All the individuals from these photos were subadults under six years of age and were excavated from Ille Cave. Photos taken by author....................................................... 143
Figure 4.9. Two examples of joint pathologies on individuals from the Spanish period burials. The photo on the left shows extensive pitting and some osteophyte formation on the inferior body of a lower cervical vertebra of individual 2247, a mid-adult male from Ille Cave. The photo on the right shows the ankylosis of an interphalangeal joint of old adult individual 2 from Bongabong. Photos taken by author..................................................................................... 144
Figure 4.10. Diagrammatic representation of individual 2212 showing the bones present (gray) and bones with pathological lesions (black)......................................... 146
Figure 4.11. Erosive lesions on the ectocranial surface (top) and a close-up photo of the lesions (bottom) on the frontal bone of individual 2212 from Ille Cave. Photos taken by author........................................................................................................... 147
xiii
Figure 4.12. Erosive lesions on the endocranial surface (top) and a close-up photo of the lesions (bottom) on the frontal bone of individual 2212 from Ille Cave. Photos taken by author........................................................................................................... 148
Figure 4.13. Lesions on the ectocranial surface of the occipital bone of individual 2212 from Ille Cave. Photos taken by author.................................................................................. 149
Figure 4.14. Lesions on the endocranial surface of the occipital bone of individual 2212 from Ille Cave. Photos taken by author.................................................................................. 150
Figure 4.15. New bone formation and lytic lesions on the lumbar body of individual 2212. Photo taken by author................................................................................. 151
Figure 4.16. Diagrammatic representation of individual 3 showing the bones present (gray) and bones with pathological lesions (black)............................................................... 153
Figure 4.17. Osteolytic lesions on the left lateral bodies (upper left), right lateral bodies (upper right), and anterior bodies (bottom photos) of the thoracic vertebrae of individual 3. Photos taken by author................................................................................. 154
Figure 4.18. Resorptive lesions on the vertebral ends of the ribs of individual 3 (top photos) and new bone formation on the lateral side of a thoracic body (bottom left) and on the costal tubercle of a rib (bottom right). Photos taken by author....... 155
Figure 4.19. The distribution of teeth with pathologies from the pre-colonial sample according to age..................................................................................................................... 158
Figure 4.20. The distribution of teeth with pathologies from the pre-colonial sample According to sex.................................................................................................................... 158
Figure 4.21. The distribution of permanent teeth with pathologies from the Spanish period samples according to age.............................................................................. 160
Figure 4.22. The distribution of deciduous teeth with pathologies from the Spanish period samples according to age.............................................................................. 161
Figure 4.23. The distribution of teeth with pathologies from the Spanish period according to sex..................................................................................................................... 161
Figure 4.24. Some examples of caries from the Spanish period burials. The photo on the left shows caries on the left maxillary teeth of individual 23, a subadult from Sibaltan. The photo on the right shows large carious lesions on the cemento-enamel junction of the mandibular teeth of individual 21, a young adult female from Sibaltan. Photos taken by author........................................................................................................... 163
Figure 4.25. Periapical lesion on the maxilla of individual 2212, a young adult female from Ille Cave. Photo taken by author.................................................................................. 165
1
Chapter 1 – INTRODUCTION
Introduction
The prehistoric period of Southeast Asia involves a complex series of events which led to the spreading out of people throughout the region, with each country developed through different processes and influences that shaped their culture as it is today. Although great strides in the understanding of Southeast Asian prehistory have been made in recent years, there still remains a lot to be accomplished regarding the comprehension of the complexity of the prehistory in this region. Therefore, a review of the general prehistory of the region is essential in the interpretation of studies of skeletal remains from Southeast Asia.
Bioarchaeology refers to the study of human skeletal remains from archaeological sites (Larsen 1997; Buikstra and Beck 2006; Oxenham and Tayles 2006; Agarwal and Glencross 2011). It is useful in understanding the past since direct evidence from human remains are used in analyzing lifestyle, activities and health of past populations (Larsen 1997; Buikstra and Beck 2006; Agarwal and Glencross 2011). A biocultural approach is used in bioarchaeological studies to understand how the interactions between culture and biology affect the way people lived (Buikstra and Beck 2006; Agarwal and Glencross 2011). Biorchaeological studies within Southeast Asia have progressed greatly during recent years, and more information regarding the life of past populations from Southeast Asia, particularly in the continental region, has been presented. However, more work still needs to be done particularly since most of the bioarchaeological studies in Southeast Asia have focused on sites from the continental region. Bioarchaeological literature on skeletal remains from island Southeast Asia is very sparse, with most focusing on descriptive reports of burials found from archaeological sites particularly those from earlier time periods. This thesis aims to contribute bioarchaeological information on island Southeast Asia by analyzing human skeletal remains from the Philippines to reduce this gap in knowledge and to provide a more holistic picture of the life of prehistoric populations from Southeast Asia. The study of overall health through the analysis of skeletal and dental remains, together with the ethnohistoric and archaeological studies on Philippine prehistory, can provide a more holistic picture of the past. Skeletal analysis is important for cross-examination of ethnohistoric and archaeological data in the interpretation of Philippine prehistory and early history.
2
The examination of skeletal remains from the Philippines helps in addressing the gaps in bioarchaeological literature of Southeast Asia by providing a representation of individuals from island Southeast Asia. In this thesis, skeletal samples dated to the pre-colonial Metal Age period and the early colonial period are studied and evidence of skeletal and dental pathologies were recorded systematically to assess any differences in the prevalence of these pathologies according to age and sex within and between the samples. Most studies on the health and lifestyle of prehistoric and early historic Filipinos are based mainly on ethnographic and historical accounts in addition to archaeological analysis of various artifacts from archaeological sites. On the other hand, recent analyses on prehistoric health in other parts of Southeast Asia are focused on the examination of human skeletal and dental remains (Tayles 1996; Tayles et al. 2000; Domett 2001; Nelsen et al. 2001; Krigbaum 2003; Pietrusewsky and Tsang 2003; Tayles and Buckley 2004; Matsumura and Hudson 2005; Domett and Tayles 2006b; Halcrow and Tayles 2008) as well as archaeological information. These studies have yielded a very significant amount of information on health and lifestyles of these people.
Regional and Temporal Context
Southeast Asia is comprised of several countries with diverse ecology and cultural identities. The region, which lies to the east of India, to the west of Oceania and below East Asia, has a very complex prehistory and history. Southeast Asia is divided into two geographic regions: continental or mainland Southeast Asia and island or peninsular Southeast Asia. Continental Southeast Asia refers to the countries that are part of the Asian continent while island Southeast Asia refers to the group of islands to the east and south of the South China Sea. These two regions have different local environments and histories which are reflected in the diversity of ethnicities and languages that can be found in the region (Harrison 1955; Williams 1976; Bellwood 1978; Bellwood 1992b; Wolters 1999; Osborne 2000; Glover and Bellwood 2004; SarDesai 2010).
4
by European colonizers also contributed to the complexity of Southeast Asian history. While the historic period of Southeast Asia offers interesting possibilities for research, more studies on human prehistory in Southeast Asia are undertaken. This is mainly due to the interest of most researchers in the prehistory of the region, which is concentrated mainly on the early settlement of humans. Also, due to the abundance of historical records and archaeological sites of the European contact period, it may not seem that there is a need to use bioarchaeology in interpreting Southeast Asian history. This is particularly true in the Philippines, where history starts at around the mid-16th^ century, which is quite early compared with other parts of Southeast Asia.
Since the Spaniards started to colonize the Philippines with the aim of spreading Catholicism throughout the islands, written records pertaining to pre-Spanish beliefs and ways of life were destroyed in order to dispel “barbaric” and “paganistic” traditions of the Filipinos. However, verbal accounts of folk stories were passed down through generations (Agoncillo 1969; Roces 1977; Agoncillo 1990). Also, the appropriation of some beliefs into the Catholic framework has helped preserve part of the Filipino culture before the arrival of Europeans (Agoncillo 1969; Roces 1977; Agoncillo 1990; Robertson and Blair 1993). Archaeological explorations have yielded several artifacts which provide few insights on the origins and activities of early prehistoric Filipinos (Fox 1970; Garcia 1979; Junker 1998; Solheim 2002; Paz 2004; Solheim 2006). In addition, more information about the late prehistory of the Philippines has become known through the research of historians, anthropologists and archaeologists. Several theories regarding the phases of Philippine prehistory have been proposed (Zamora 1967; Garcia 1979). It is known that the Philippines was part of the “Indianized” Southeast Asia through historic records, linguistic evidence and archaeological data d s 1968; Garcia 1979). “Indianized” Southeast Asia refers to the parts of the region where strong influences of Indian culture had prevailed d s 1968; Osborne 1997; Lukas 2004). This includes the majority of the Southeast Asian region; however Indian influences were much stronger in some areas, particularly in mainland Southeast Asia and Indonesia d s 1968; Lukas 2004). Islamic influence came later, and the arrival of the Spanish resulted in the decline of Islamic rule in the northern and central Philippines (Agoncillo 1969; Garcia 1979). Chiefdoms were also present in the numerous islands of the Philippines prior to European contact (Garcia 1979; Junker 1993; Junker 1998).
Recently, archaeological and ethnohistorical research on various sites in the Philippines has shed more light on the latter part of Philippine prehistory and the connections of prehistoric Filipinos to their various neighboring countries. However, a study on the general
5
health of prehistoric Filipinos using data from skeletal remains has yet to be done. Current archaeological research in the Philippines focuses mainly on early prehistory, particularly on the initial human settlement within the archipelago. As the human remains from earlier periods are less likely to be preserved, studies are centered more on the material culture of early prehistoric sites. However, studies on sites dated to the historic period also focus more on material artifacts associated with burials and other archaeological features, with very little research focusing on the human remains themselves. Research on these human remains offer the possibility of providing a different perspective on the history of the region, and even confirm or refute interpretations based on archaeological and historical data.
As noted earlier, there has been little research regarding human remains from island Southeast Asia. This may be attributed to the local environment of the area, where preservation of skeletal remains, particularly from earlier periods, is very poor (Solheim 1954; Dizon 1979c; Dizon 1979a; Cuevas 2003; Barker et al. 2011). Another reason might be due to political tensions which makes it difficult for researchers to gather data from some areas. Thus, studies on prehistory in these areas focus on evidence of human occupation such as lithics, shells and fossilized faunal remains which are usually much better preserved than human remains (Solheim 1964; Bacus 2004; Paz 2004; Barker et al. 2007; Higham et al. 2009). This lack of research creates a gap in the knowledge of Southeast Asian prehistory. Also, the dearth of research on the changes in health and lifestyle from the prehistoric period to the European contact period presents another gap in the knowledge of Southeast Asian bioarchaeology. Did the health and lifestyle of Southeast Asians change upon the arrival of the Europeans? Was the quality of life improved by the introduction of Western ideologies and knowledge? These are some of the questions that this research aims to address.
Aims
The aims of this thesis are as follows:
To review the prehistory and early history of Southeast Asia, focusing on the bioarchaeology of the region and to identify where more research should be carried out To assess whether or not there were any changes in health during the onset of colonialism in the Philippines and to begin addressing research questions regarding the prehistory of island Southeast Asia To provide a preliminary study on the state of health of past populations in continental and island Southeast Asia