Ancient and Medieval India: A Study of Science and Technology, Schemes and Mind Maps of History

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HISTORY

OF

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

By

Dr. Binod Bihari Satpathy

CONTENT

HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

Unit.No. Chapter Name Page No

Unit-I. Science and Technology- The Beginning

1. Development in different branches of Science in Ancient India: Astronomy, Mathematics, Engineering and Medicine.

2. Developments in metallurgy: Use of Copper, Bronze and Iron in Ancient India.

3. Development of Geography: Geography in Ancient Indian Literature. (^) 36- Unit-II Developments in Science and Technology in Medieval India
4. Scientific and Technological Developments in Medieval India; Influence of the Islamic world and Europe; The role of maktabs, madrasas and karkhanas set up.

2. Developments in the fields of Mathematics, Chemistry, Astronomy and Medicine.

3. Innovations in the field of agriculture - new crops introduced new techniques of irrigation etc.

Unit-III. Developments in Science and Technology in Colonial India

1. Early European Scientists in Colonial India- Surveyors, Botanists, Doctors, under the Company‘s Service.

2. Indian Response to new Scientific Knowledge, Science and Technology in Modern India:

3. Development of research organizations like CSIR and DRDO; Establishment of Atomic Energy Commission; Launching of the space satellites.

Unit-IV. Prominent scientist of India since beginning and their achievement

1. Mathematics and Astronomy: Baudhayan, Aryabhtatta, Brahmgupta, Bhaskaracharya, Varahamihira, Nagarjuna.

2. Medical Science of Ancient India (Ayurveda & Yoga): Susruta, Charak, Yoga & Patanjali.

3. Scientists of Modern India: Srinivas Ramanujan, C.V. Raman, Jagdish Chandra Bose, Homi Jehangir Bhabha and Dr. Vikram Sarabhai.

1.1.0. Objectives This chapter will discuss the development of different sciences in ancient India. After studying this lesson the students will be able to:  know the origin and development of astronomy in ancient India;  understand the origin and growth of mathematics in ancient India.  assess the growth of engineering in ancient India.  identify the evolution and growth of medicine in Ancient India.  list the contributions of India to the world in the field of Mathematics and other Sciences. 1.1.1. Introduction T he impression that science started only in Europe was deeply embedded in the minds of educated people all over the world. The alchemists of Arab countries were occasionally mentioned, but there was very little reference to India and China. Thanks to the work of the Indian National Science Academy and other learned bodies, the development of sciences in India during the ancient period has draw attentions of scholars in 20th^ century. It is becoming clearer from these studies that India has consistently been a scientific country, right from Vedic to modern times with the usual fluctuations that can be expected of any country. In fact, we do not find an example of a civilization, except perhaps that of ancient Greece, which accorded the same exalted place to knowledge and science as did that of India. This chapter will throw lights on the sphere of sciences in which ancient Indian excelled. 1.1.2. Mathematics Vedic Hindus evinced special interest in two particular branches of mathematics, viz. geometry and astronomy_._ Sacrifice was their prime religious avocation. Each sacrifice had to be performed on an altar of prescribed size and shape. They were very strict regarding this and thought that even a slight irregularity in the form and size of the altar would nullify the object of the whole ritual and might even lead to an adverse effect. So the greatest care was taken to have the right shape and size of the sacrificial altar. Thus originated problems of geometry and consequently the science of geometry. The study of astronomy began and developed chiefly out of the necessity for fixing the proper time for the sacrifice. This origin of the sciences as an aid to religion is not at all unnatural, for it is generally found that the interest of a people in a particular branch of knowledge, in all dimes and times, has been aroused and guided by specific reasons. In the case of the Vedic Hindu that specific reason was religious. In the course of time, however, those sciences outgrew their original purposes and came to be cultivated for their own sake. The following paragraphs will discuss the history of mathematics in ancient India. 1.1.2.1. Vedic Period The Chandogya Upanisad mentions among other sciences the science of numbers. In the Mundaka Upanisad knowledge is classified as superior and inferior_._ The term ganita , meaning the science of calculation, also occurs copiously in Vedic literature. The Vedanga Jyotisa gives it the highest place of honour amongst all the sciences which form the Vedanga. At that remote period ganita included astronomy, arithmetic, and algebra, but not geometry. Geometry then belonged to a different group of sciences known as kalpa. Available sources of Vedic mathematics are very poor. Almost all the works on the subject have perished. There are six small treatises on Vedic geometry belonging to the six schools of the Veda. Thus, for an insight into Vedic mathematics we have now to depend more on secondary sources such as the literary works. 1.1.2.2. Post-Vedic Mathematics T he development of a certain level of mathematical knowledge dictated by the material needs of a society is a common phenomenon of all civilizations. What is noteworthy is that Vedic Hindus went much farther than what was warranted by such needs and developed a natural love for the subject fully in keeping with their propensity for abstract reasoning. That problems of irrational quantities and elementary surds, indeterminate problems and equations, arithmetical and geometrical series, and the like, while engaged in the

practical design and construction of sacrificial altars. Although problems of architecture, the intricacies of the science of language such as metre and rhyme, and commercial accounting did stimulate the development of mathematics, its greatest inspiration doubtless came from the consideration of problems of reckoning time by the motions of celestial bodies. In India, a substantial part of mathematics developed as a sequel to astronomical advancement; and it is no accident that the bulk of post-Vedic mathematics has been found only in association with the Siddhantas , a class of astronomical works. The formative period of Siddhantic astronomy may be limited to the first few centuries of the Christian era. These centuries and possibly the few closing ones of the pre- Christian era witnessed the development of mathematics required for adequately expressing, describing, and accounting for astronomical elements and phenomena, as well as for meeting the various needs of an organized society. Jaina priests showed remarkable interest in the study and development of mathematics. They devoted one of the four branches of Anuyoga (religious literature) to the elucidation of ganitanuyoga (mathematical principles) and prescribed proficiency in samkhyana (science of calculation) and jyotisa (astronomy) as an important prerequisite of the Jaina priest. An idea as to the various mathematical topics discussed at this early age and recognized in later Jaina mathematical works such as the Ganitasara- sangraha of Mahavira (A.D 850) and Ganitatilaka of Sripati (A.D. 999) may be obtained from an extant passage in the Sthananga-sutra ( 1 st^ Cent_._ B.C.). This passage enumerates : parikarma (fundamental operations), vyavahara (determination), rajju (geometry), kalasavarna (fraction), yavat-tavat (linear equation), varga (quadratic equation), ghana (cubic equation), vargavarga (biquadratic equation), and vikalpa (permutations and combinations). It will be seen that ganita then comprised all the three principal branches, viz. arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. Its differentiation into arithmetic (patiganita or vyaktaganita) and algebra ( bijaganita , avyaktaganita , or kuttaka) did not take place until Brahmagupta (A.D

598. sought to emphasize the importance of the two. Treatises exclusively devoted to arithmetic began to appear from about the eighth century A.D. Geometry, which had a somewhat independent career at the time of the composition of the Sulvasutras, formed part of ganita and later became largely associated with arithmetic. 1.1.2.3. Arithmetic Decimal Place-value Numeration : It is well known that the development of arithmetic largely centered round the mode of expressing numbers. The early advantage, skill, and excellence attained by Indians in this branch of mathematics were primarily due to their discovering the decimal place-value concept and notation, that is, the system of expressing any number with the help of either groups of words or ten digits including zero having place-value in multiples of ten. An extensive literature exists on the Indian method of expressing numbers, particularly on the decimal place-value notation with zero, and on the question of its transmission to South and West Asia and to Europe leading to its international adoption. Mathematicians and orientalists are generally agreed that the system with zero originated in India and thence travelled to other parts of the world. In examining the question of India‘s contribution to the origin and development of the place-value system with zero, the basic facts established from literary and epigraphic sources may be summarized as follows: At first, from the Vedic times the basis of numeration in India has consistently been ten. Long lists of names for several decimal places are found in the sacred literatures of the Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists. The Vajasaneyi , Taittiriya , Maitrdyani , and Kathaka Samhitas give denominations up to 13 places, e.g. eka (1), daja (10), sata (100), sahasra (1000),.. .samudra , madhya , anta , and pardrdha. Buddhist literature continued the same tradition and introduced a centesimal scale ( Jatottara-ganana ), obtaining the name talaksana for the 54th place. The Jains in the Anuyogadvara-sutra ( c. 100 B.C.) called the decimal places ganana-sthana, gave a numerical vocabulary analogous to that of the Brahmanic literature, and mentioned fantastically large numbers up to 29 places and beyond. Thus the decimal place-value mode of reckoning was recognized without any ambiguity in the sacred literatures of the pre-Christian period going back to the

of South-East Asia- two at Palembang in Sumatra and one in Banka. These give the Saka dates 605, 606, and 608 in figures. Another old Srivijaya inscription found in Sambor gives the Saka date 605 in the same way. In Java two fragments of inscriptions have been found in Dinaya which express the same date in word numerals as well as in figures in the decimal place-value arrangement. Thus the Saka date 682 is written as nayana-vasu-rasa and is also repeated in figures. It is natural to conclude that the numerals with zero had originated in India and travelled to South-East Asia with the Hindu colonizers. Extraction of Square and Cubic Roots : the above discussion shows that, the development of the decimal place-value notation also meant the evolution of a new kind of arithmetic. Let us take the case of the extraction of square and cube roots of large numbers. In India the method first appeared in the Aryabhatiya (A.D. 499). This was followed by Brahmagupta (A.D. 598) who, however, did not give any rule for square root extraction. Subsequently, Mahavira ( A.D 850), Sridhara ( A.D 991), Aryabhata II (A.D 950), Bhaskara II ( A.D 1150), and Kamalakara ( A.D 1658) gave fundamentally the same rules. The method of extraction of the cube root of any integral number has been traced to the Ganitapada of the Aryabhatiya. The same method is given by Brahmagupta in his Brahmasphuta-siddhdnta. Subsequent Indian authors have given the same method in a less cryptic style. 1.1.2.4. Algebra The beginnings of algebra, or more correctly, the geometrical methods of solving algebraic problems, have been traced to the various Sulvasutras of Apastamba, Baudhayana, Katyayana, Manava, and a few others. These problems involving solutions of linear, simultaneous, and even indeterminate equations arose in connection with the construction of different types of sacrificial altars and arrangements for laying bricks for them. The differentiation of algebra as a distinct branch of mathematics took place from about the time of Brahmagupta, following the development of the techniques of indeterminate analysis (kuttaka). In fact, Brahmagupta used the terms kuttaka and kuttakaganita to signify algebra. The term bijaganita , meaning ‗the science of calculation with elements or unknown quantities‘ (bija) , was suggested by Prthudakasvamin (A.D 860) and used with definition by Bhaskara II. Brahmagupta gave the following classifications: (1) eka- varna-samikarana- equations in one unknown, comprising linear and quadratic equations; (2) aneka-varna- samikarana- equations in many unknowns; and (3) bhavita- equations containing products of unknowns. Quadratic Equations : The Sulvasutras contain problems involving quadratic equations. The Bakhshali Manuscript gives the solution of a problem in a form which reduces to None of them gives any rule for solving such equations. Both Aryabhata I and Brahmagupta clearly indicate their knowledge of quadratic equations and the solutions thereof. Indeterminate Equations : The branch of algebra dealing with indeterminate equations of the first degree has interested Indian mathematicians and astronomers presumably from the time of the Sulvasutras. These manuals contain rules and directions which point to the solution of simultaneous indeterminate equations of the first degree. Thus the Baudhayana Sulvasutra prescribes rules for the construction of a garhapatya vedi (sacrificial fire altar) which lead to indeterminate equations. Detailed rules of solution are given in the works of Aryabhata I, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara I, Mahavlra, Aryabhata II, Bhaskara II, and later authors and commentators. Indeterminate analysis had an immediate application in astronomy in the determination of the cycle (yuga) of planets from the elapsed cycles of several other given planets. Further refinements, clarifications, and extensions were due to subsequent Indian mathematicians such as Sripati, Bhaskara II, and Narayana, and several commentators who made no mean contribution to this branch of algebra. Hankel, the well-known historian of mathematics, praise the achievement of the Hindu mathematicians in this field. Permutations and Combinations , Pascal Triangle , and Anticipation of Binomial Theorem : In the early Jaina canonical literature, permutation was termed vikalpa-ganita and combination, bhanga. Later on the term chandaiciti was adopted to signify permutations and combinations. The rules had wide applications which Bhaskara II enumerated as follows: ‗It serves in prosody, for those versed therein, to find the variations of metre; in the arts (as in architecture) to compute the changes upon apertures (of a building); and

(in music) the scheme of musical permutations; in medicine, the combinations of different savours. For fear of prolixity, this is not (fully) set forth.‘ The Susruta-samhita correctly gives the sum of combinations of six tastes taken one at a time, two at a time, etc. up to all at a time. The Jaina Bhagavati-sutra calculates the number of combinations of n fundamental categories taken one at a time, two at a time, and so on. Varahamihira has stated that ‗an immense number of perfumes can be made from sixteen substances taken in one, two, three, or four proportions‘, and has correctly given the number of perfumes resulting from sixteen ingredients mixed in all proportions. Varahamihira in his astrological work, the Brhatjataka , applied the same principle in connection with planetary conjunctions. An interesting rule for finding the number of combinations of n syllables taking 1, 2, 3, etc. up to a at a time has been given in Pingala‘s Chandah-sutra and is known as meru-prastara. 1.1.2.5. Geometry Like other branches of mathematics, geometry in India in the post-Vedic period was developed in the course of dealing with practical problems. Although there are quite a few examples of important results having been obtained, the subject never grew into an abstract and generalized science in the manner it did at the hands of the contemporary Greeks. Problems receiving geometrical treatment were discussed under such topics as ksetra (plane figures), khata (excavations or cubic figures), citi (piles of bricks), krakaca (saw problems or cubic figures), and chaya (shadows dealing with problems of similarities and proportions). This mode of treatment continued up to the time of Bhaskara II or even later. But it was not until the beginning of the eighteenth century that Euclid‘s Elements was translated into Sanskrit by Jagannatha (A.D 1652) under the title of the Rekhaganita. The solution of right-angled triangles, whose sides a , b , c are connected by the relation a2+b2=c a, constituted a favourite preoccupation of the ancient Indians. Aryabhata I made a general statement of the theorem. Brahmagupta gave general solutions of such triangles, whose sides can be given in rational numbers. 1.1.2.6. Trigonometry Trigonometry was developed as an integral part of astronomy. Without its evolution many of the astronomical calculations would not have been possible. Three functions, namely, jyat kojya (also kotijya ), and utkramajya , were used and defined in ancient times. Fairly accurate sine tables were worked out and given in most astronomical texts to facilitate ready calculations of astronomical elements. The usual practice was to give the values at intervals of 3°45', although other intervals also were sometimes chosen. Intermediate values were calculated by extrapolation. Brahmagupta, Bhaskara I, and others gave formulas for the direct calculation of the sine of any angle without consulting any table. Thus in trigonometry there is evidence of an unbroken tradition of excellence and originality in India extending over several centuries. 1.1.2.7. Calculus Rudimentary ideas of integration and differentiation are found in the works of Brahmagupta and Bhaskara II. Bhaskara II, in particular, determined the area and volume of a sphere by a method of summation analogous to integration. In the first method, the surface is divided into elementary annuli by drawing a series of parallel circles about any point on the surface. The number of such circles, according to Bhaskara II, can be as many as desired. The area of the sphere is given by the sum of areas of the annuli. To find the volume of the sphere, it is divided into a large number of pyramids with their bases lying on the surface of the sphere and their apices coinciding with the centre. The sum of the volumes of these pyramids gives the volume of the sphere. In the definition of tatkaliki gati (instantaneous motion) by Bhaskara II and in his method of calculating its value, an elementary conception of differentiation is clearly indicated. The problem is presented in connection with the question of finding the instantaneous velocity of a planet. Earlier, he had given methods of determining the mean and true longitudes of any planet for any instant of time. In conclusion, it may be stated that mathematics is a specialized discipline the knowledge of which must necessarily remain confined to only a few persons having an exceptional interest in the subject and its application. In India also during the ancient time the study of mathematics was the preoccupation of a few

and setting with the sun from day to day. This passage is considered very important ‗as it describes the method of making celestial observations in old times. Observations of several solar eclipses are mentioned in the Rg-Veda , a passage of which states that Atri observed a total eclipse of the sun caused by its being covered by Svarbhanu, the darkening demon. Atri could calculate the occurrence, duration, beginning, and end of the eclipse. His descendants also were particularly conversant with the calculation of eclipses. In the Atharva-Veda the eclipse of the sun is stated to be caused by Rahu the demon. At the time of the Rg- Veda the cause of the solar eclipse was understood as the occultation of the sun by the moon. There is also mention of lunar eclipses. Calculation of Season: In the Vedic Samhitas the seasons in a year are generally stated to be five in number, namely, Vasanta (spring), Grisma (summer), Varsa (rains), Sarat (autumn), and Hemanta-Sisira (winter). Sometimes Hemanta and Sisira are counted separately, so that the number of seasons in a year becomes six. Occasional mention of a seventh season occurs, most probably the intercalary month. It is called ‗single born‘, while the others, each comprising two months, are termed ‗twins‘. Vedic Hindus counted the beginning of a season on the sun‘s entering a particular asterism. After a long interval of time it was observed that the same season began with the sun entering a different asterism. Thus they discovered the falling back of the seasons with the position of the sun among the asterisms. Vasanta used to be considered the first of the seasons as well as the beginning of the year. The Taittiriya Samhita and Aitareya Brahmana speak of Aditi, the presiding deity of the Punarvasu naksatra , receiving the boon that all sacrifices would begin and end with her. This clearly refers to the position of the vernal equinox in the asterism Punarvasu. There is also evidence to show that the vernal equinox was once in the asterism Mrgasira from whence, in course of time, it receded to Karttika. Thus there is clear evidence in the Samhitas and Brahmanas of the knowledge of the precession of the equinox. Equation of time: Some scholars maintain that Vedic Hindus also knew of the equation of time. The Vedas prescribed various yajnas or sacrifices to be performed in different seasons of the year. The duration of these sacrifices used to vary; some were seasonal, some four-monthly, some year-long, and others even longer. It was necessary to calculate the time to begin and end a sacrifice. This presumably led the Vedic Indian to turn to astronomy. The winter and summer solstices formed the basis of their seasonal calculations. The ascertained solstice days almost always coincided with the full moon, new moon, or last quarter of the lunar month. The seasons were calculated beginning from the uttarayana- the winter solstice or the first day of the sun‘s northerly course. There were six seasons, each of two months: winter, spring, summer, rains, autumn, and dews. Early researchers came across a Vedanga tradition about the position of the solstices of the Vedic period. It states that the sun turns north at the beginning of the Dhanistha division and south at the middle of the Aslesa division-a phenomenon which is known to have prevailed during the period between 1400 and 1200 B.C. This led them to consider this period as the earliest phase of the Vedic age. The manner in which positions were ascertained in the Vedic period may be determined from a passage in the Aitareya Brahmana which indicates that the sun remained stationary at the rising point or maintained the Same meridian zenith distance for twenty-one days at the solstices. The true solstice day was the middle of these twenty-one days_._ The twenty-one days in which the sun remained stationary at the solstice were divided into ten, one, and ten days. The two periods of ten days at the beginning and at the end were styled viraja. Since at the end of the sun‘s northerly course the sun‘s rising point remained stationary for twenty-one days, it was thought that the middle or the eleventh day was the true summer solstice day. Similarly, the eleventh day of the solstice at the end of the sun‘s southerly course was the winter solstice day. When the solstice day fell on a new moon day, the new moon naksatra gave the position of the solstitial point. Likewise, when the solstice day fell on a full moon day, the moon‘s naksatra gave the position of the opposite solstitial point. The observation of the retardation in the moonrise after the full moon could exactly settle the full moon day and also perhaps the instant of the full moon. Similarly, the observation of the entire

period of invisibility of the moon after the new moon led to the correct estimate of the exact day and perhaps of the hour of the instant of the new moon. The observation of the phase of the moon on the solstice day settled the nature of the Vedic calendar, whether the lunar months were to be reckoned as ending with the full moon, the new moon, or even with the last quarter of the lunation. Sometimes after four years the months ending with the full moon and starting from the winter solstice day were changed into months ending with the new moon. Hence in the observational methods forming the Vedic calendar, this procedure of changing the system of reckoning lunar months from months ending with the full moon to those ending with the new moon and vice versa was quite possible. A winter solstice on a full moon day in the month of Magha (January-February) will in six years fall on the seventh day of the dark half of the month, and the first day of the sun‘s northerly course will fall on the next day, i.e. the day of the last quarter. This idea is supported by the statement the first day of the next year will fall on the day of the last quarter in the Taittiriya Brahman. In those days the lunar phase of the solstice day gave the mode of reckoning the coming lunar months. In ordinary calendars it was generally preferred to follow the lunar months ending with either the new moon or the full moon. Sometimes there arose a special necessity for finding the winter solstice day of a particular year, which led to the determination of the new phase of the moon for finding the first day of the new year. This settled the dates for beginning the Vedic sacrifices lasting two or four lunations. Among the sacrifices th e jyotistoma and vajapeya- the spring and the summer sacrifice respectively-were of two months duration each. The four-monthly (caturmasya) sacrifices lasted the four months of spring and summer. For these, both the solstice days were very frequently determined in the process mentioned above. The Aitareya Brahmana , however, speaks of only the summer solstice day. The year-long sacrifices, like the asvamedha and rajasiiya began from the spring and lasted twelve lunations. The beginning of spring was taken at 60 or 61 days after the winter solstice day, which was a fair approximation. The long-period sacrifices performed by the Vedic people sometimes extended to three, five, or twelve years. In three yeah there was evidently one additive lunar month, while in five years there were two. Thus in eight years three additive months had to be reckoned with. Consequently in four years there were one and a half additive months and in twelve years four and a half additive months. The Srautasutras also speak of sacrifices which lasted for thirty-six years or even longer periods. The Vedic people were keen observers of the motions of the moon amongst the fixed stars. The ecliptic stars were regarded as so many milestones for the moon‘s motion in a sidereal month. The stars and star clusters about the ecliptic were probably named and reckoned as twenty-seven or twenty-eight, the period of revolution of the moon being between twenty-seven and twenty-eight days. In the Mahabharata the naksatras are stated to be twenty-seven in number when Rohini is the first star, a phenomenon which may be dated at about 3000 B.C. Many are the naksatras mentioned in the Rg-Veda but we cannot be definite whether all the twenty-seven or twenty-eight naksatras were recognized before the time of the Taittiriya Samhita (c. 2446 B.C.). Of the twelve signs of the zodiac, the Rg-Veda refers to Mesa (Aries) and Vrasabha (Taurus). But it may be doubted if such references really point to anything similar to the signs of the zodiac as conceived by the ancient Babylonians and Greeks. The twelve signs of the zodiac do not figure in the whole of the Sanskrit literature prior to A.D 400. In the Mahabharata there is no mention of the signs of the zodiac. Neither are the days of the week mentioned in the Mahabharata or the Vedas. Each day of the lunar month was named after the star or constellation with which the moon was conjoined on that particular day. In the Aitareya and Kausitaki Brahmanas we have a detailed description of the gavamayana sacrifice. The rules of this sacrifice prescribed the sacrificial days of the year: 180 each for the northerly and southerly courses of the sun. The six extra ( atiratra ) days were not regarded suitable for ordinary sacrifices. These atiratra days were distributed through the year at different intervals, resulting in varying calculations of the lengths of the sun‘s northerly and southerly courses during the Vedic period. Both the summer and

thought to increase by 3 palas every day. This rough rule is on a par with those given in the Vedanga-jyotisa and Paitamaha-siddhanta. The other rules for finding the longitudes of the moon and sun and the shadow of the gnomon at midday are also inexact. No definite method for the calculation of eclipses occurs up to the time of the Vasistha-siddhanta. The Paulisa-siddhanta, according to Varahamihira, maintained that there are 43,831 days in 120 years. Thus the length of the year was taken to be 365-2583 days. The longitude of the sun‘s apogee was taken to be 80°. The mean measure of this periphery of the sun‘s epicycle was considered to be about 15°8, which is near to that accepted by Ptolemy, viz. 15°. However, the faulty text of this Siddhanta prevents us from forming any idea of its views about the mean motion and the equations of the moon. As regards the moon‘s other elements, the author of the Paulisa-siddhanta knew of the same two convergent to the anomalistic month, viz. 248 days, as was known to the author of the Vasistha-siddhanta. According to the Paulisa-siddhanta , the moon‘s greatest latitude was 270' or 4° 30', as in all other Siddhantas. The courses of the planets Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn as given in the Paulisa- siddhdnta are found in the latter portion of Chapter XVIII of the Panca-siddhantika. The Romaka-siddhanta as summarized by Varahamihira in his Pancasiddhantika bears a foreign name and represents perhaps the sum total of Greek astronomy transmitted to India. According to Varahamihira, the luni-solar yuga of the Romaka-siddhanta comprises 2,850 years in which there are 1, adhimasas and 16,547 omitted lunar days. From this it is inferred that there are 1,040,953 civil days and 3,520 synodic months in 2,850 years. The year thus consists of exactly 365 days , as accepted by Ptolemy. The Romaka synodic month agrees more closely with that of the Aryabhatiya , according to which its length is equal to 29.530582 days The length of the anomalistic month is expressed as 3031 days, i.e. 27.554 days. It is evident that in respect of the lengths of the synodic and anomalistic months the Paulisa and Romaka- siddhantas , and the Aryabhatiya are very nearly in agreement. In the Romaka-siddhanta the revolutions of the moon‘s nodes are stated to be 24 in 163,111 days. One revolution thus takes 6,796 days and 7 hours. This figure according to Ptolemy is about 6,796 days and 11 hours, while Aryabhata puts it at 6,794-749511 days. The rule for parallax in longitude is the same as in the Paulisa-siddhdnta. The rule for parallax in latitude is expressed in the following equation. The greatest latitude of the moon is taken in the Romaka-siddhdnta to be 270', as in all the Siddhantas. According to Ptolemy, however, this is about 5° or 300'. The mean semi-diameters of the sun and the moon are recorded as 15' and 17' respectively, while Ptolemy states them to be 15'40‘ and 17'40‘. Aryabhata: Scientific Indian astronomy dates from the year A.D 499 when Aryabhata I of Kusumapura (Pataliputra or Patna) began to teach astronomy to his pupils. Amongst his direct pupils, mention may be made of Pandurangasvamin, Latadeva, and Nihsanka. One Bhaskara, whom we shall refer to as Bhaskara I, was perhaps also a direct pupil of Aryabhata I ; or he might have been a pupil of his direct pupils. Bhaskara I was the author of the Laghubhaskariya and the Mahabhaskariya which treat of Aryabhata‘s system of astronomy. He also wrote a commentary on the Aryabhatiya. He is mentioned by Prthudaka in his commentary on the Brahmasphuta-siddhdnta of Brahmagupta. Among the direct pupils of Aryabhata I, Latadeva, expounder of the old Romaka and Paulisa-siddhanta got the appellation of sarva- siddhanta-guru , i.e. teacher of all the systems of Siddhantas. Aryabhata I was original in the construction of his new science. He was the author of two distinct systems of astronomy, the audayika and the ardharatrika. In the first, the astronomical day begins at the mean sunrise at Lanka, and in the other, it begins at the mean midnight. The Aryabhatiya teaches the audayika system, and ardharatrika system. A comparison of the astronomical constants of the Greek and the Indian systems points unmistakably to the conclusion that the Indian constants determined by Aryabhata I and his successors are in almost all cases different from those of the Greeks. Aryabhata teaches his theory of planetary motions as follows: ‗All planets move in eccentric orbits at the mean rates of angular motion, in the direction of the signs of the zodiac from their apogees (or aphelia) and in the opposite direction from their Sighroccas. The eccentric circles of planets are equal to their

concentric, and the centre of the eccentric is removed from the centre of the earth. The distance between the centre of the earth and the centre of the eccentric is equal to the radius of the planet‘s epicycle; on the circumference (of either the epicycle or the eccentric) the planet undoubtedly moves with the mean motion. With regard to the five superior planets-Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn-Aryabhata I and other Indian astronomers give only one method for finding the apparent geocentric position. Each of these ‗star planets‘ is believed to have a twofold planetary inequality: (i) the inequality of the apsis and (ii) the inequality of the sighra. With regard to the superior planets, the sighra apogee or the sighrocca coincides with the mean position of the sun. The theory of spherical astronomy of Aryabhata I is contained in the Golapada section of the Aryabhatiya. Aryabhata I explained the methods of representing planetary motions in a celestial sphere. Such terms as prime vertical, meridian, horizon, hour circle, and equator are defined in this section. Aryabhata I was the first Indian astronomer who referred to the rotation of the earth to explain the apparent diurnal motions of the fixed stars. Varahamihira’ s redaction of the old surya-siddhdnta is a wholesale borrowing from the ardharatrika system of astronomy of Aryabhata I. But, his work is valuable from the viewpoint of the history of Indian astronomy. He mentions the names of the following astronomers who preceded him: Lajadeva, who was a direct pupil of Aryabhata I; Simhacarya, of whom we know very little except that he considered the astronomical day to begin from sunrise at Larika; Aryabhata I; Pradyumna, who studied the motions of Mars and Saturn; and Vijayanandin, who made special observations of the planet Mercury. Brahmagupta (b. A.D 598) wrote his Brahmasphuta-siddhdnta in c. A.D 628 and his Khandakhadyaka in A.D 665. The second work gives easier methods of computation of the longitude of planets according to Aryabhata‘s ardharatrika system of astronomy. In his first work he has corrected all the erroneous methods of Aryabhata I and has in more than one place corrected the longitude of the nodes, apogees, and other astronomical elements of planets. Indeed, after Aryabhata I the next name of significance is undoubtedly Brahmagupta, who, coming 125 years after the former, did not find much scope for the further development of Indian astronomy. Thus being jealous of the great fame of Aryabhata I, he made some unfair criticisms of his work. Besides his corrections of Aryabhata‘s system. In his Khandakhadyaka he demonstrated the more correct method of interpolation by using the second differences. Indeed, his methods have been accepted by all the subsequent famous astronomers like Bhaskara II and have been incorporated into redactions of the Siddhantas. 1.1.3.3. The Originality of Indian Astronomy Concepts of scientific astronomy in India were not borrowed wholesale from cither Babylonian or Greek science rather the ancient sutrakaras or writers of aphorisms who stated only their results but not the methods by which they obtained them. These methods were at first transmitted through generations of teachers, and in the course of ages they were lost. Aryabhata I furnished only one stanza ( Golapada ) regarding his astronomical methods, which says: ‗The day-maker has been determined from the conjunction of the earth (or the horizon) and the sun; and the moon from her conjunctions with the sun. In the same way, the ―star planets‖ have been determined from their conjunctions with the moon.‘ No other Indian astronomer has left us anything of the Indian astronomical methods. There is no doubt that Greek astronomy came to India before the time of Aryabhata I. Varahamihira has given us a summary in his Panca-siddhantika of what was known by the name of the Romaka-siddhanta , but nothing of the epicyclic theory is found in it. A verbal transmission of that theory together with that of a few astronomical terms from a foreign country was quite possible. It must be said to the credit of Indian astronomers that they determined all the constants anew. The Indian form of ‗evection equation‘ is much better than that of Ptolemy and stands on a par with that of Copernicus. It is from some imperfections also that this originality may be established. For instance, the early Indian astronomers recognizcd only one part of the equation of time, viz. that due to the unequal motion of the sun along the ecliptic. In regard to the methods of spherical astronomy, the Indian astronomers were in no way indebted to the Greeks. The Indian methods were of the most elementary character, while those of

These comprise elaborate sanitary measures, arrangements for bath in specially-built chambers, and medicinal substances consisting of stag-horn, cuttle-fish bone, and bitumen. The craniotomic operation described in the Susruta-samhita , hygienic rules and regulations as part of medical practice, application of vapour bath in medical treatment, and utilization of animal and mineral substances in medical prescriptions are some of the instances of borrowing by the Ayurvedic system from earlier cultures. Indo-Aryan Medical Elements : While pre-Aryan elements led to the development of some medical practices in Ayurveda, Indo-Aryan medical elements facilitated the growth of some concepts and theories. These are mainly noticed in (a) cosmo-physiological speculations about the three basic constituents of living organisms, viz. vayu, pitta, and kapha ; (b) ideas about the aetiology of diseases; and (c) belief in the association of medical treatment with god physicians. (a) Cosmo-physiological speculations relate to the humeral theory of Ayurveda which propounds that wind (vayu), bile (pitta), and phlegm (kapha) are the three basic elements activating, sustaining, nourishing, and maintaining the life-principle. The origin of this theory may be traced to Indo-Aryan speculations regarding the three world-components, viz. air, fire, and water, which similarly sustain, maintain, and motivate the world. The cosmic element of vayu or vata (air) is considered the motor par excellence which activates the entire universe. Its physiological manifestation is the vital breath or prana which, according to Ayurveda, regulates all functions of life. Pitta, which maintains the thermal balance of the body, is a manifestation in living organisms of the cosmic principle of agni (fire). The term kapha, meaning that which results from water, corresponds to the cosmic primordial water (ap). This primordial element was viewed by both the Indo-Aryans and Indo-Iranians as ‗mother‘, as a ‗vivifying liquid‘ (nectar). Some other epithets show it as the ‗fluid matrix‘ from which the birth of living organisms was possible. Its physiological element kapha in the human body is also credited with the same properties. Both ap and kapha signify the fluid-matrix in which all the operations of life are possible. (b) Ayurvedic theories and ideas about the aetiology of diseases are of two kinds, rational and irrational. The first kind is formulated on the basis of pathological conditions, while the second is rooted in the notion of superhuman and malefic agencies being the cause of diseases. Maladies classed under the second group are known as adhidaivika. Ayurveda owes much to the Indo-Aryan or Vedic medicine for this idea of the irrational cause of diseases. Moreover, the elaborate theory of dosas , i.e. abnormal conditions of the three basic elements as the main cause of disease, which developed in Ayurveda, is also suggested in a passage of the Atharva-Veda. (c) The other Indo-Aryan element present in Ayurveda is the association of godheads with medical treatment. The important god-physicians of the Vedic medicine finding prominence in Ayurveda were Brahma, Indra, Rudra (as Siva), Surya or Agni, and the two Asvins. Their active role as physicians in the Vedas is replaced by the Ayurvedic medical formulae which allude to different godheads for the cure of specific diseases. This association of divinities with healing was a common aspect of ancient medicine throughout the world. The authors of Ayurveda in order to glorify the medical prescriptions appear to have associated them with the renowned Indo-Aryan god-physicians. Ayurveda and the Vedas: In its conceptual aspects Ayurveda has greater affinity to Rg-Vedic notions, while in practice it draws much from Atharva-Vedic medicine. Its relation to the Atharva - Veda is seen in its (i) two fold objective of the curing of disease and the attainment of a long life; and (ii) anatomical and physiological ideas. Under the second category may be cited (a) three types of bodily channels- hirdy dhamani, and nadi- used in the sense of duct in the Atharva-Veda and corresponding to Hrady, dhamani , and nadi of Ayurveda which mentions an additional channel ( srotas); (b) ideas of five vital breaths common in the two systems;(c) osteological ideas in connection with the number and nomen- clature of bones; and (d) ojas (albumen), the vital element in the body recognized in Atharvan medicine and in Ayurveda. The main points of difference between Ayurveda and the Atharva-Veda are in the concept and mode of treatment of diseases. The Atharva-Veda stresses the wrath of gods and influence of malefic agents as the causes of diseases more than imbalances in bodily elements which are given primary importance in the

diagnosis of diseases in Ayurveda. Hence drug treatment predominates in Ayurveda whereas treatment by charms is emphasized in the Atharva-Veda. Ayurveda, which incorporates different traditions, has a distinct place alongside of the Vedas. It forms a upanga of the Atharva-Veda and upaveda associated particularly with the Rg-Veda. It is sometimes called a panchama-veda or fifth Veda. The epithet upanga is presumed to have come into use on account of the resemblance between Ayurveda and the medical portion of the Atharva-Veda. This relationship has been noted by Susruta himself and later on by others. Its appellation as a upaveda or minor Veda of the Rg-Veda occurs in the Caranavyuha. Ayurveda is mentioned as a fifth or distinct Veda in the Brahmavaivarta Purana. Modern writers consider it as a Vedanga or an appendage of Vedic literature. All the aforementioned epithets of Ayurveda point to its existence in some form during the composition of Vedic literature. Although glorified as an appendage of Vedic literature, Ayurveda as such is not mentioned there. A later Vedic text designates a medical treatise as subhesaja. The Mahabharata first refers to Ayurveda with its eight branches of knowledge. It specifically mentions Ayurveda composed by Krsnatreya. 1.1.4.3. Development and Decline of Ayurveda Ayurveda as systematized into eight parts appears to have developed abruptly, but this impression is due to paucity of written records concerning the early state of Ayurveda. These early treatises were superseded by the present recessions because of their growing popularity. A list of the early recessions is preserved, however, in the Brahmavaivarta Purana. The history of Ayurveda may be divided into four stages,; first, the beginning period ( idevakala ), second, the period of compilations (rsikala or samhitakala) , thirdly, the period of epitomes ( sangrahakala ), and finally, the period of decline. These four periods are marked by three distinct types of Ayurvedic treatises. Beginning Period : In this period Ayurvedic works were attributed to mythical, divine, and semi- divine, personages. These works are all lost. Important among them were the Brahma-samhita composed of 100,000 Mokas , Prajapati-samhita , Alvi-samhita, and Balabhit-samhita. Period of Compilations : This period (c. 500 B.C-A.D. 500) witnessed the compilation of the works of ancient teachers who were the founder-writers of different aspects of Ayurveda. These aspects or eight parts of Ayurveda include Kayacikitsa (therapeutics), Salya-tantra (major surgery), Salakya-tantra (minor surgery), Bhutavidya (demonology), Kaumarabhrtya-tantra (pediatrics), Agada-tantra (toxicology), Rasayana-tantra (geriatrics), and Vajikarana-tantra (virilification). (i) Kayacikitsa relates to treatment of diseases affecting the whole body, which are supposed to originate mainly from disturbances of the three humours. The first and foremost compilation was the Agnivela-tantra of Agnivesa, based on the teachings of Atreya Punarvasu. This work dealt primarily with therapeutics but touched upon other aspects of Ayurveda excepting talakya. (ii) Salya-tantra (Salya literally means ‗arrow‘) deals with the methods of removing foreign bodies; obstetrics; the treatment of injuries and diseases requiring surgery; and the use of surgical instruments, alkalis, bandages, etc. The Susruta-samhita is one of the great classics on Indian surgery, belonging to the Divodasa-Dhanvantari school. (iii) Salakya-tantra is concerned with the treatment of diseases of the body above the clavicle and use of thin bars, small sticks or probes, etc. as instruments. The nine texts belonging to this group, viz., Videhanimi-, Kankayana -, Gargya-, Galava-, Satyaki-, Saunaka -, Karala and Krsnatreya-tantras , are all lost. (iv) Bhutavidya treats of mental derangements and other disturbances said to be caused by demons and prescribes prayers, oblations, exorcism, drugs, and so forth as remedies. No separate works appear to have been composed on this branch of Ayurvedic medicine. But various chapters devoted to this subject found in larger works include the Amanusapratisedha adhyaya of the Susruta-samhita and Unmadaniddna adhyaya of the Caraka-samhita.

germination of seeds, manuring, growth, classification of plants, and their treatment in diseased conditions. The two available works on this branch of knowledge are the Vrksayurveda of Surapala ( c. tenth century A.D.) and the Sarngadhara-samhita ( c. fourteenth century A.D.) , a medical compendium containing a chapter called Upavana-vinoda which deals with different aspects of plant life and concentrates on the aetiology, diagnosis, and treatment of plant diseases. Surapala‘s work adopts the theory of tridosa in the diagnosis and treatment of internal diseases of plants. 1.1.4.5. Later Development of Ayurveda A new type of Ayurvedic treatment, rasacikitsa , which incorporated iatrochemistry or metallic compounds, came into vogue from c. A.D.1300. It sought to utilize bodily fluids (rasa) for repelling diseases and preventing senility, and thereby acquiring a long life. Numerous preparations of mercury, iron, copper, and other metals as formulated in alchemy were found to be helpful accessories in medicine. At first they were used cautiously and tentatively in combination with the recipes of Caraka and Susruta mainly based on medicinal plants. Later, these preparations supplanted the old Ayurvedic herbal treatment. Mercury became a principal healing substance, of which numerous preparations are described in different iatro-chemical texts and even in general works on Ayurveda of the medieval period. Opium and several other foreign drugs were incorporated into Ayurvedic pharmacology in about A.D.1500. Mineral acids, tinctures, and essences also came to be used about the same time. 1.1.4.6. Spread of Ayruveda Outside India The concepts and theories of Ayurveda have their parallels in the contemporary medical systems of Iran, Hellenic countries, and Mesopotamia. The influence of Ayurveda on Greek medicine is noticed particularly in respect of the theory of pneuma physiology. Both recognize the importance of wind as the propeller of all movements in the body inclusive of fluid circulation; as the cause of many diseases, particularly those of the nervous system; in building up the anatomy and physiology of the foetus from the moment of conception; and in the circulation of the mother‘s vital breath through the embryo. Apart from the pneuma theory, the Ayurvedic concept of humoral origin of diseases also occurs in Hippocratic manuals, but the treatment is less sophisticated. It is reasonable to conclude that these ideas ‗were imported into Greece along with many other Ayurvcdic concepts‘. The medical treatment of eye diseases of elephants referred to by Megasthenes ( c. fourth century B.C.) is found to have been based on ideas borrowed from the Hastyayurveda of Palakapya. The use of drugs like dry pippali (long pepper) as a cure of eye diseases, and many other facts and logical inferences show that Ayurveda spread into Greece. Conversely, some ideas associated with Greek medicine might have been incorporated in Ayurveda. The spread of Ayurveda in Hellenic countries is to some extent inferred, but in the case of Arab countries and other parts of the world it is evident as Ayurvcdic texts or their translations are found there. Some renowned Ayurvedic texts were translated into Arabic and from Arabic into Persian. The Susruta samhita was translated by an emigrant Indian physician under the title of Kitab-Samural-hind-i. Ali ibn Zain translated the Caraka-samhita under the title of Sarag. The Astangahrdaya was translated as Astankar and the Mddhava-nidana as Badan. Ayurveda thus came to be a well-known science in Arabia from where it spread into Persia. There is evidence of the spread of Ayurvedic concepts and facts in Iran, Central Asia, Tibet, Indo-China, Indonesia, and Cambodia. Several Ayurvedic texts have been found in Central Asia. 1.1.5. Engineering and Architecture in Ancient India T he achievements of Indian people in the field of engineering began in the proto-historic times, from the third millennium B.C. or even earlier. The ancient Indian civilization like those of Iran, Iraq, Mesopotamia, and Egypt showed skill in the construction of buildings and granaries, in town-planning, and in the provision of civic amenities like community baths and other sanitary conveniences. 1.1.5.1. Prehistoric Period: The earliest evidence of the technical skill of the ancient Indian lies perhaps in the numerous tools he carved out of stone in the course of his struggle for existence. A long period of trial and error requiring power of observation and the application of what was observed in his natural surroundings must have intervened

between this period of the fashioning of crude pebble tools and the development of the hand-axe. The early Paleolithic age was followed by the middle Paleolithic age when he made tools on fine-grained flakes, which were smaller in size and included scrapers, points, awls or borers, blades, etc. These tools, archaeologists think, might have been used for dressing animal skins and barks of trees, smoothing the shafts of spears, cutting, chopping, etc. They may be classified into two groups-core and flake-according to the way in which they were made. Core tools were made by chipping or flaking away a stone until the desired shape was obtained. Flake tools were made, however, by detaching a large piece from a stone and then working it into the requisite shape. A third classification put forward by some archaeologists is the chopper-chopping tool group; these tools were made from pebbles by knocking off a portion to make the cutting edge. The Mesolithic age saw the growth of what is called the small stone microlithic industries of India. At Langhnaj in Gujarat have been discovered pottery and tools as well as sandstone slabs, flattened on one side and used for grinding. The next stage in the growth of man‘s skill in India is termed the Neolithic revolution when he started settling down, making tools from bones of animals he hunted. Excavations at Burzahom near Srinagar have revealed that the earliest inhabitants of this valley lived in circular or oval pits dug into the Karewa soil. Evidence of postholes along the edge of the pits indicated a timber superstructure covered over by a thatched roof. The pit-dwellers provided landing steps to reach down the floor of their house, where stone hearth and small-sized storage pits were met with. In the succeeding period, red ochre was found used as a colouring material for the floor‘. Such pit-dwellings have also been found at Nagarjunakonda in the Krishna valley. 1.1.5.2. Architecture during Harappan Period Remains of the Indus valley civilization (fourth-third millennium B.C.) unearthed at Mohenjodaro and Harappa now in Pakistan, Lothal in Gujarat, and Kalibangan in Rajasthan amply testify to the well- developed technical skill of ancient Indians. Mohenjo-daro in Sind and Harappa in the Punjab are deemed to have been the capital cities of the Indus valley. Each of the towns was approximately three miles in circuit. The dwellers of Mohenjo-daro were among the world‘s pioneers in city construction. The largest buildings unearthed in Mohenjo-daro measure more than 73 m X 34 m. Road alignments were from cast to west and from north to south, each crossing the other almost at right angles in a chessboard pattern. The width of the roads varied from approx. 10 m. to 5.48 m., depending on the requirements of traffic. There is evidence of attempts to pave the roads at some places. The houses unearthed are commodious and well built, indicating the civil engineering skill of the people. The bricks were well burnt and of various proportions, such as 1.2.3. The bricks were cast in open moulds by the open stack method with wood fuel to burn them. Although the Indus valley people acquired considerable mastery over brick-making they have left us no evidence of decorative brick work. Most of the houses had more than one floor, although the number of rooms on the first floor was presumably limited. Nevertheless, the technique of load distribution must have been mastered by them. The houses were closely built. The average middle class dwelling was about 9.14 m. X 8.22 m., consisting of four or five living rooms. These houses were constructed with due provision for sanitary amenities. A typical house included a central courtyard; a well-room; a paved bath; a sewer pipe protected by brick work which ran beneath the floor into the public drain in the street, providing drainage from the courtyard; and a pipe running vertically in a wall to carry sewage from the upper floor. The use of a pulley wheel for drawing water from the wells was known as may be inferred from certain depictions in terracotta. Among the ancient remains found in the Indus valley are two remarkable structures, viz. the Great Bath situated in the citadel mound at Mohenjodaro and the Great Granary at Harappa. The overall dimension of the Great Bath is 54.86 m. x 32.91 m., while the swimming pool, situated in the centre of a quadrangle with verandahs on all sides, measures 11.88 m. x 7. m. The massive outer walls of the building are 2.13 m. to 2.43 m. thick at the base with a batter on the outside. There are at either end of the swimming pool a raised platform and a flight of steps with another platform at the base of each flight of steps. The pool is lined with finely dressed brick laid in gypsum mortar with an inch of damp-proof course of bitumen. From an analysis of samples of bitumen at Mohenjo-daro.