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Lesson 1
HUMAN RELATION THEORY - ELTON MAYO
Structure:
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Early Experiments by Elton Mayo
1.3 Human Relation Theory
1.4 The investigations on Southern California Aircraft Industry
1.5 The Effects of Hawthorne Experiments
1.6 Human Relations School and Criticism
1.7 Conclusion
1.8 Model Questions
1.9 References
1.0 Objectives:
1. Students would know about the Elton Mayo and his early life
2. Students would be able to know about the early experiments by Mayo
3. Students would be able learn about Human Relation theory
1.1 Introduction:
George Elton Mayo was born on 26 December 1880, and he died on 7 September
1949. He was an Australian Psychologist, Sociologist and organization theorist. He
worked at the University of Queensland from 1911 to 1923, and later he moved to
the University of Pennsylvania, however, he spent most of his career at Harvard
Business School from1926 to1947, where he works as professor of industrial
research. He was involved in study of psychopathology which in fact had played an
important role to perform as an industrial researcher. Elton Mayo is considered to be
the father of human relations theory. His major works are in 1933, “The Human
Problems of an Industrial Civilization”, in 1945, “The Social Problems of an Industrial
Civilization”, and in 1947, “The Political Problem of Industrial Civilization”.
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Mayo is very famous as the forefather of the Human Relations Movement, and also
recognised for his research which comprises of the Hawthorne Studies and his book
‘The Human Problems of an Industrialized Civilization was written in 1933’. In 1930s,
under the Hawthorne, he conducted the research and it revealed the prominence of
groups in affecting the behaviour of persons at work. He supported numerous
research works to understand and find out the methods to increasethe productivity,
for instance change in the condition of lighting at the workplace. What he found was
that the work satisfaction rest on to a greatamount on the casual social pattern of the
work group. Anywherestandards for support and advancedyield were recognised
because of a sense of significance, physical circumstances or financial motivations
had little motivational value. People will practicelike work groups and this can be
used by management to advantageof the organization.
1.2 Early Experiments by Elton Mayo:
Similar to his other contemporaries, Elton Mayo, also focussed thoughtfulness on
issues related to the industrial labour in the factories, mainly on fatigue, accidents,
production levels, rest periods, working conditions etc. in the year 1923, he initiated
his research studies in a textile mill near Philadelphia, in the prevailed situations
then, the mill offers all the facilities to the labour and it was well organized, and was
measured to be a model organization. The employers were extremely open-minded
and caring, but the president and director of personnel encountered problems in the
mule-spinning department of the textile mill. The turnover of the general labour in all
the departments was expected to be almost 5 per cent or 6 per cent per
annum,whereas in the mule-spinning department the turnover was probableat nearly
250 per cent. It is understood that about 100 industrial workers were compulsory
every year to keep about 40 working. Subsequently, it was a vital department for the
smooth operation of the mill, various schemes were announced by the management
in the form of incentives, and with those efforts to their surprise all the lureswere did
not work to preserve the labour, they also consulted number of firm in order to solve
the problem. At last on the suggestion of engineers they had announced four specific
financial incentives, but they could not able to achieve appreciable results. As a last
resort, the firm referred the problem to Harvard University.
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1.3 Human Relation Theory:
The theory of human relations, provides predominance to the human aspect over the
elements of institutions, as propagated by the customary public administration
schools. It is a trail defiance theory in the discipline of public administration, which
sights the organization primarily as a social system by uplifting the human conduct
as the elementary component for study. In human relations theory,the employees
are seen as human beings, instead of a meagre human supplement of machinery or
hands for work. It is mainly established on a humbleprinciple that the ‘human
problem requires a human solution’, subsequently, better-off workers are the secret
to a prosperousinstitute. Those whosupported this theory have revealed that in
public institute, efforts have been prepared to answerthe problems of human with
non-human data. This theory emphasises four important aspects of the institute,
andit looks that the classical theorists have unnoticed. These are: (a) organization is
to be viewed as a social system; (b) workers are human beings with all humanly
attributes; (c) informal elements also play an important role in the overall
organizational output; and (d) organization has a social ethics, instead of individual
ethics.
The School of Human Relations is in many ways is a reply to the classical theories
and the establishment of human relations movement is mainly due to the importance
of the classical theories on formal structure, control, efficiency, economy and
hierarchical authority.The school of human relation takes its appearancemainly in
group dynamics, sensitivity training and institutional growth. The stress on
thefeatureobviouslyreplicates the essential standardsfor the human relation school,
like importance on openness, satisfaction of worker on self-actualization, decrease in
absenteeism, difference and inter-personal competition and so on. The
significantopinion is that the answers of human relations school are generally
founded more on tests and assessments than on observation of on-going
progressions in multifacetedestablishments. It is to propose that the standards on
which the movements of human relations movement founded are as immaterial. It
ensures that these standardsmight be in struggle with the standards on which the
classical and neo-classical models are founded.
The method of human relation in administration is a gratitude to the element that the
informal organization be present side by side with the formal organization for
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advancement of efficiency and productivity. It is essential to know the inter-
relationships in both the formal and the informal institutions. It is clear that the
actualpresence of informal institutespecifies the battle between the aims of the
persons and the institute. The outline of human relations school is actually an effort
to synchronise the aims of the persons with the institutions. This needsextradevotion
and assurance on thosepersons in the performance of the institution to achievethe
productivity and fulfilment of the persons. The method of classical would benefit to
recognise the formal and freelyobservable working of the institution, at the same
time, it ensuresit will not encourage an understanding of the wholefunctioning of the
organization.
The foremostfear of the human relation school is that it tries to mix the organization
and individual, in doing so, it also tries to know the basicfeatures of the both things.
The major aspect of the institute, is that it associates with people who work together,
it collaborate and cooperate with each other and also having their actions which are
inspired by the mental and material things, formal and informal behaviour and so on.
The school of human relations has been embodied in the works of Chris Argyris.
McGregor, Likert, Maslow, Herzberg and others which hasadvanced upon the
studies carried out by Elton Mayo and Roethlisberger and Dickson and the
visionsdelivered by Chester Bernard. These scholars exposed that the classical
organization theory, by captivating the formal institutional structure as the unit of
analysis and focusedon economic encouragements, by doing so they overlooked the
real determinates of behaviour of the person.The school of human relations raised
upon the Hawthorne studies agreed the Hawthorne works of the Western Electrical
company in Chicago and by Elton Mayo and his associate F.J. Roethlisberger and
W.J. Dickson.
Mayo précised his findings as follows:
- Spinning produces postural exhaustion and it encourages negative reverse.
- Rest gaps to release these situations and upsurge the productivity by re-
establishing normal flow, releasing postural fatigue, and interrupting negative
daydream.
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of working conditions. Informal leadership was also found to be significant. For the
success of work centre, the work must be in the hands of a lead man, and hardly the
foreman visit the centre. The lead man with substantial experience in the industry,
enabled the work of others by giving technical, personal, and social help to individual
workers; by sighing that satisfactory work materials were available; and handling
contacts with the rest of the company.
These outcomes were confirmed in the interviews with workers who were irregular in
their attendance. The “irregulars” were branded by a situation of personal inefficiency
and unhappiness. Severalworkers left the job because their work had on no occasion
become an essential part of their entire life. This disorder was outlined the
supervisors who were thoughtless and displayed “irritable impatience” reasonably
than individualthought and understanding. As a consequence, the irregulars were
merely a group of unconnectedpersons and they are not members of a cohesive
group or team.
Mayo sights the outcomes of this study as being reliable with the answers of his
earlierresearch. The wish for connotation, he preserves, deeply rooted, and informal
social groups will unavoidablyoccur.The growth of the social group must not be left to
chance, instead, management need be thoughtful to the requisite for a significant
social group and make the circumstancesin that requisite can be satisfied in such a
way that it can be harmonious with efficiency in the attainment of organizational
goals.
1.5 The Effects of Hawthorne Experiments:
The conclusionsby the research of the Hawthorne unlocked a new look for
management, these findings recommended that the management mustfocus upon
the organisation’s non-economic inducements rather than focusing on the formal
principles of organization and economic incentives to increase production and
leadership style. The method of human relations revived a sum of balance into the
investigation of organization. These experiments exposed that people merely were
not answering to alterations in physical environment which led the researchers to
accomplish that reply of the people was positive when they observe that others are
trying to help them. This “Hawthorne Effect” happens whether or not the
aimsbenchmarks of what establishesbenefit are foreverattained. It was also revealed
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that informal organization prospering within, and occasionallygenerateconditionof
opposing to the wants of the formal organization.
It was observed by the scholars that the people are extremelyinspired and organised
by their social environment. Any upsurge in self-esteem is essentiallyconnected to
alter the social environment but not the physical environment or material condition.
The growth of the organization in the lines of social system was chief approach of
Mayo and his associates. The fact was that man is not inspired by logic and fact but
relatively by emotion and social value. It was also pointed out that it is not
conceivable to give material goods and other physical belongings like means and
hours of work and hence they essentially be combined with the social values. The
human relationship method of Mayo is emphasized the role of social groups and
social relationship in the institute. This methodestablished that emotional and non-
logical outlooks are more significant than logical and economic aspects in
enlightening the organizational productivity and competence. This method also
revealed that human conduct is conditioned to more group relations and group
thinking.
1.6 Human Relations School and Criticism:
Though the effect on the development of organizational theory is notable, but the
human relations school was met with severe criticism from several directions. A
number of scholars allegedthat the conclusions of studies led by the human relations
theories has many gaps. The criticisms which was razed against this method can be
stated as below:
1. Firstly, it was expected in most of the studies of human relations that the
attainment of high self-esteem / satisfaction would progress worker productivity. As
early as 1960, McGregor had pointed out the errors in such an argument.
Productivity was a much more complex subject that was understood and was also
reliant on the amount of capabilityof use in the economy and technological change.
2. Secondly, the method was fair as prescriptive as that of scientific management
and classical administrative theory. The variance between these methods was that
they need different treatments. The method of human relations backs social
relationships as a required feature of modern complicated organizations and they
must have been observed as an ethical scheme to be followed in its own
rightfulness.
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difficult to recognise. In totality, the human relation school was mainly accountable
for a chief move in the organization theory and this move caused in appearance of a
new concept known as organizational humanism which became a major field in the
social science disciplines.
1.8 Model Questions:
1. Critically examine Elton Mayo’s Human-Relations Approach.
2. Examine the basic features of Human – Relations Approach focusing on Elton
Mayo’s contribution.
1.9 References:
1. The Human Problems of Industrial Civilization, Boston, Harvard business
School, 1946, 2nd^ ed.; The social Problems of Industrial Civilization, London,
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975; The Political Problems of Industrial
Civilization, Boston, Harvard Business School, 1947.
2. Sharma, M.P., and Sadana, B.L. (2010) - Public Administration in Theory
and Practice, KitabMahal, New Delhi.
3. Maheswari, S.R., A. Avasthi, (2010) - Public Administration, Lakshmi Narain
Agarwal, Agra.
4. Drucker,Peter (1961) The practice of Management, Mercury Books, London.
5. Prasad, D.R, and Prasad, V.S, et al, (2010) Administrative Thinkers,
Sterling Publishers, New Delhi.
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Lesson 2 DECISION MAKING THEORY – HERBERT ALEXANDER SIMON
Structure:
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Contributions of Herbert Simon
2.3 Influences on Herbert Simon
2.4 Works of Herbert Simon
2.5 Decision Making Theory by Herbert Simon
2.6 Satisfying upon Model
2.7 Organizational Decision Making
2.8 Rationality in Decision Making
2.9 Conclusion
2.10 Model Questions
2.11 References
2.0 Objectives:
- Students would know about the Herbert Simon and his early life
- Students would be able to know about the early experiments by Mayo 3. Students would be able learn about decision making theory
2.1 Introduction:
The studies of Administration have developed a theoretical concepts of social systems and some vital ideas of human behaviour. An amount of efforts were prepared during this period to conceptualize and theorize on what was being revealed about man at work and are measured as precursory stages on the development of organizational theory. They are named as behavioural studies, and they studies about behaviour of human by interdisciplinary method represents from the information accessible in Anthropology, Sociology, Psychology and have become a part of the important development that is usually branded as Behavioural Science.
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computer science. In 1930s, Simon started his research work on city management that later concluded into a book titled “Measuring Municipal Activities”, in 1938.
2.4 Works of Herbert Simon :
In 1947, Simon published his doctoral dissertation, “Administrative Behaviour” and it is considered as one of the top ten most influential works in the political science, public administration and management of 20th^ century. Later in 1958, he published ‘Organization’ and his main publications comprise of ‘Public Administration in 1950, in 1953, Fundamental research in administration, in 1960, The New Science of Management and Shape of Automation, in 1969, science of Artificial and in 1972, Human Problem Solving.
2.5 Decision Making Theory by Herbert Simon: One of the important input to the public administration by Herbert Simon was his theory of decision making process in the administrative institution, and he stated this theory as the ‘heart of the management’. He also associates the decisions making process to administration, he states, that the public administration theory, should have consisted of those aspects which allow the rational decision making in the institution. To this trait, he familiarized his well-known dichotomy which is known as ‘value-fact dichotomy’. He stated that the decision making process has based on two important principles like, ‘value premises’ and ‘factual premises’. To quote Simon: decisions are somewhat factual proposals. To be certain, they are descriptive of a false a firmly empirical logic; but they possess in addition, an authoritative quality they select one, future state of affairs in preference to another and direct behaviour towards the chosen alternative.
Simon stated that the factual premises in the decision making can be assessed as ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’ in an objective and experimental way whereas the value premises in the decisions unable to adjudicate as correct or incorrect but they must be taken as they are. The difference between value and factual premises impacts the appeasement of responsibility and accountability. Simon powerfully highlights that the values and factual premises must be detached to construct a science of public administration.
The theory of decision making by Herbert Simon rotates around the following three thoughts.
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- Organizational Decision-Making
- Rationality in Decision-Making
The above aspects may be elaborated in the following manner.
2.6 Satisfying upon Model:
Simon proposes a new decision-making model to begin his analysis, he mentions to this model as “Satisfying Man,” that is, a decision maker who, as of the restrictions on his reasoning and analytical capabilities, agrees to the substitutions that are just reasonable or adequate in respect to his ambition levels. Simon notes that there are numerous substitute replicas of man as a decision maker. The psychological model of man as a decision maker highlights the active thoughts in decision making. The sociological ideal highlights the role play with little room for choice. By suggesting this model of Satisfying Man, Simon accepts an intermediate pathway between these substitutes and the Satisfying Man can be differentiated from Sociological Man, in that his decision-making is entirely not determined by social roles. He is well-known from Economic Man by being incomplete in his reasoning and investigative aptitudes. Simon identifies that a nature of science need to provide both touching and reasoning features of human behaviour, his chief anxieties are reasoning features. He defines his assignment as the rebuilding of theory to deliver clarification of rational human behaviour with some pretence of practicality. Simon is mainly worried with differentiating Satisfying Man from Economic Man.
The model of Simon suggests that the decision maker plays a humble role since he is logical and satisfies because he has not wanted to maximize. While making decisions, Satisfying Man will not inspect all probable substitutes and also overlooks most of the compound interrelationships present in the world, and he apply comparatively modest rules-of-thumb while he makes decisions.
According to Simon, the meaning of rationality rest in the manner by which one defines this word, the definition of Simon about the rationality has two necessities. First, the amount to which suitable path of action is really chose means the outcomes, and second the definition must take into consideration about the efficiency and restriction of the measures used to make decisions means process. Thus, Simon defines rationality as “the selection of preferred behavioural alternatives in terms to some system of values whereby the
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indicator is at the greatest-level objective in the means-ends chain in such a way that the phases necessary to see the objective can be expanded and that the objective can be measured to regulate whether it has, in fact, been attained.
The third characteristic is common to both the programmed and non-programmed decision making is that, the decision making process is separated into dissimilar independent steps an allotted organizational subunits. The higher level units brand broad outline of the decisions and depute exact concerns to the subordinate units. Though, this will effect in what Simon calls a “loosely coupled” system in which the objectives of the organization and its subunits are rarely prepared to accept.
The fourth mutual characteristic is that “satisfying” rather than “optimizing” principles are used in selecting between the alternatives. Therefore, Simon differentiates satisfaction from improving criteria. One develops a set of criteria that allows all substitute therefore be related for safeguarding optimization. The enhancing decision maker chooses one substitute by means of these criteria, from all the current alternatives. On the other hand, the decision maker frames a set of criteria that helps to select reasonable substitutes.
A .Programmed Decision Making:
In programmed decision making the similar motivation happens at all the phases and the organization grows a certain process for control dissimilar conditions. The process contains a “performance program” which controls the arrangement of answers to a decision performance programs differ in respect to their amount of specificity. Programmed decisions are made conferring to accept performs rather than by consideration of substitutes. This performance programme covenants with a limited variety of circumstances and concerns, and every program is performed in comparative independence from other programme. The Performance programmes can be developed at all stages in the organization. In common, upper levels of the organization are more anxious with organising programmes established somewhere else than the ones which are the results of new developed programmes. Programmed decision making is a limited process by which hunt for substitutes is either incomplete or completely absent. Monotonous motivations function as a means for recognising circumstances for making decisions. Performance programmes, determine the alternative of choice.
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B. Non-Programmed Decision Making:
Non-Programmed decisions are completed in reply to new motivations for which no structured reply occurs. Therefore, non-programmed decision making contains some search activity which monitors expectable and arranged outlines.
The space of performance might be the outcome of poor performance or earlier decisions subsequent influences like facing new opportunities, or a mixture of those factors. The scope of the presentation gap usually determines the concentration of the search for alternatives. If the space is too small, then it may harvest indifference, on the other hand if it is too large, it may crop frustration.
Simon classifies a number of processes that an employed in developing non-programmed decisions. Usually, organizations have trusted upon judgment, rules of thumb, and the choice and training of executives to handle non-programmed decision making, Simon advocated that these traditional techniques can be enhanced by training non-programmed decision making for the top executives and it is their responsibility, and the description of aexact unit in the organization so as to deal with non-programmed decisions. Simon states that a number of modern techniques were established for dealing with non-programmed decision making. Modern techniques of problem solving are based on computer analysis of real decision makers when they involve in problem solving jobs. This examination is planned to uncover, evaluate, systematize and routinize the customary techniques of judgment, intuition, and creativity.
2.8 Rationality in Decision Making:
Though Simon broadened the possibility of the term “rationality”, he would not mean that all decisions of the organization are essentially rational. This is because all the obtainable data and analytical abilities might not be used to the fullest level in the process of decision- making. The definition of the position may not be an exact picture of the decision situation, and therefore the problem itself may not be expressed properly. This uncertainly might lead to non-rational decisions if the assumptions drained from the raw data are not suitable to the data acknowledged by the decision makers and therefore, deliver defective premises for following decision making in the organization. The main worry of Simon was concerning the rationality of decisions, the genius of displacement of goals, and a process in which
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2.9 Conclusion: The studies of Administration have developed a theoretical concepts of social systems and some vital ideas of human behaviour. An amount of efforts were prepared during this period to conceptualize and theorize on what was being revealed about man at work and are measured as precursory stages on the development of organizational theory. They are named as behavioural studies, one of the important input to the public administration by Herbert Simon was his theory of decision making process in the administrative institution, and he stated this theory as the ‘heart of the management’. He also associates the decisions making process to administration. One of the important input to the public administration by Herbert Simon was his theory of decision making process in the administrative institution, and he stated this theory as the ‘heart of the management’. He also associates the decisions making process to administration.
2.10 Model Questions:
- Critically examine H.A. Simon’s Decision Making Approach. Estimates its place in the Administrative Theory.
- State and criticize Simon’s Decision Making Model.?
- Bring forth the salient aspects of Simon’s Decision Making Approach. How was it criticize?
2.11 References:
- Sharma, M.P., and Sadana, B.L. (2010) - Public Administration in Theory and Practice, KitabMahal, New Delhi.
- Maheswari, S.R., A. Avasthi, (2010) - Public Administration, Lakshmi Narain Agarwal, Agra.
- Fadia, B. L and Fadia, Kuldeep, (2009) - Public Administration, SahityaBhavan Publications, Agra.
- Simon, Herbert A, (1957) – Administrative Behaviour: A study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative Organization, New York, The Free Press_._
- Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behaviour: A study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative Organization, New York, The Free Press, 1957, 2nd^ Ed., p XIV.
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Lesson 3
MOTIVATION THEORY – ABRAHAM MASLOW
Structure:
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 His Works
3.3 Theory of Hierarchy of Needs
3.4 Eupsychian Management
3.5 Critical Evaluation
3.6 Conclusion
3.7 Questions
3.8 References
3.0 Objectives:
- Students would know about the Abraham Maslow and his early life
- Students would be able to know about the motivational theory 3. Students would be able learn about theory of hierarchy of needs
3.1 Introduction:
The Theory of Hierarchy, was established by Abraham H. Maslow. Which explains about the human motivation. The likes of Maslow to understand human behaviour was the outcome of his early career as a psychologist. He vexed to recognise human behaviour by the help of psychoanalysis. His clinical experiences as a psychologist allowed him to develop his five level theory of need hierarchy. And constructed using his studies, Maslow started writing a book during the 30’s and it was ‘intended to be a systematic psychology of the older type’. Maslow’s writings created interest among other clinical and personality psychologists, but managers and administrators began to read Maslow’s thoughts only after McGregor popularized them.
Abraham Harold Maslow was born on 1st^ April, 1908, in Brooklyn, New York, USA. And he died on 8th^ June, 1970. Maslow was the oldest of seven children and his parents were first generation Jewish immigrants from Russia, who were not intellectually oriented but valued
