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Introduction -^ Chi. pte.^0
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° Language is^ largely^ subconscious^.
linguistic competence :^ subconscious^ level^ of^ your native^ language.
language : (^) abstract cognitive system^ which^ uniquely allows^ humans
to produce t comprehend an infinite number of
meaningful sentences^. °
Linguists call^ rules^
" descriptive rules! '
- they use^ descriptive^ grammar to^ try and^ describe^ how^ language works.
- language is^ innate^.
- (^) All languages are^ rule^
governed t^ systematic. Nature of^ Language °
Linguistics
:
study
of language
- (^) Natural language : language that^ develops^ naturally in^ humans^.^ f.s^ artificial)
- human
language
consists of^... 1.) (^) Sound structures 2.) (^) rules for word (^) t sentence formation 3.) (^) interrelationships of language & social (^) structure
4.) Linguistic variation
5.) Attitudes toward^ language
Chapter I^
- i'uman Language ° (^) The (^) human
language is^ complex^ ,^ systematic^ t^ universal
- (^) all living languages^ change^ as^ time^ passes ° (^) All language have^.^.^. I.) (^) vowels t consonants 2.) (^) have (^) Ca] or
something
similar 3.) (^) nouns t (^) verbs 4.) word order 5.) draw from (^) syntactic devices t (^) constructions. ° (^) No
language uses^
" raspberry " or " Bronx (^) cheer " as (^) part of^ speech sound ° (^) No
language forms^ questions^ be^ reversing the^ order^ of^ inventory.
a declarative^ sentence^. ° LP
Speech is^ primary/basic^ ;
writing is
secondary
° (^) written
language was^ developed^
around (^) 6, yrs old (^) Hi LC 'it
:¥n;oe+ egx.is
's.
° Linguistic performance : observable realization of linguistic qt
¥
T[yymgTpesofGrammar
Competence. /, ° (^) Mental (^) Grammar : allows the (^) speaker to (^) produce a grammatical sentence^ :^ doesn't directly determine " appropriateness ' ! °
Descriptive Grammar^ :^ model^ of^ speakers
' linguistic competence^ ;^ accepts^ the pattern a^ speaker^ actually uses^.
° Prescriptive Grammar.^ ' invented by someone it serves
only to mold (^) your spoken t written^ English to^ some norm^ ; makes a^ value^ judgement. Properties of^ Human^ Language 1.) (^) Duality of^ Patterning →^ Language is^ made^ up of^ discrete^ meaningless units ° meaningful units (^) are combined^ to^ form^ meaningful units^.
° Arbitrariness : relationship between form t meaning is arbitrary.
ex.^ form^ meaning =^ linguistic sign (Sound) which^ the ( song represents )
kaet the^ word^
"cat''
Chapter 2
- Phonetics ° Phonetics : study of (^) speech sounds
types
of (^) speech sounds^ include^ phones t (^) segments. ° Articulatory phonetics^ : (^) study of^ how^ speech sounds^ are^ produced by the brain (^) or mouth (^). ° (^) Acoustic (^) phonetics : study of physical properties^ of^ speech^ sounds. ( intensity ,^ frequency,^ duration ) (^). ° Auditory Phonetics : study of how sounds (^) are (^) perceived
by the^
brain t ear (^). International Phonetic (^) Alphabet ° (^) Each symbol indicates^ one^ unique^ sound
- one - (^) to - one (^) correspondence between^ sounds^ t^ symbols - ° Designed to^ be^ able^ to^ transcribe^ the^ speech^ sounds^ of^ any human^ language. ° (^) Phonetic (^) transcription - consistent and
unambiguous
° English (^) spelling is^ very inconsistent ° (^) A sound is (^) movement of air
- (^) air (^) can be (^) obstructed differently depending^ on^ how it^ travels the vocal^ tract.
- (^) different (^) speech sounds (^) are
produced by changing the^ shape of^ the^ vocal^ tract.
° (^) Pulmonic
Egressive^
: (^) airstream mechanism that modifies the (^) stream of (^) air forced out of^ the lungs t^ passed^ through^ the oral (^) Kasal (^) cavities (^). Vocal folds (^0) Each consonant in the (^) table (^) can be uniquely described Consonants by answering the^ three (^) questions.
1.) what^ is^ the^ state^ of^ the^ glottis :^ voiced^ or^ voiceless^?
2.) what^ is^ the^ place of^ articulation?^ How^ is^ airflow obstructed? 3.) what is (^) the manner of articulation?^ How (^) is the airflow obstructed (^)?
English consonants - flap t Glottal (^) stop tape Glottal o (^) tip of the tongue come (^0) Produced when the glottis is^ completely close to^ the^ alveolar^ ridge closed^ so^ that^ no air can flow (^) though very quickly.^ it. ° (^) You (^) can '' feel (^) this (^) sound as (^) a^ " catch ex. butter, rider, beautiful, Italy (^) in the throat? ex (^). Clinton (^) , mountain, kitten, oh=uh. Vowels ° (^) No major constriction^ in^ vocal^ tract ° (^) Vowels are
produced with^ open vocal^ tract^ and^ do^ not
have a (^) point of (^) articulation or manner of^ articulation (^). ° Syllabic ° (^) All vowels are voiced in English. Four (^) questions for Vowels 1.) (^) Tongue height : high, Mid^ or^ Low^? 2.) (^) Tongue Advancement : (^) front, Central (^) or back (^)? 3.) (^) Lip Rounding : Rounded (^) or (^) Unrounded 4.) Tenseness : (^) Tense (^) or Lax ° (^) Vowels (^) can be (^) described by (^) answering the^
four questions for^ vowels^.
For (^) example : - fu) : high back rounded^ tense [ae] : (^) low front unrounded tax [E^ ]:^ mid^ front unrounded^ lax
- Co ] (schwa)
- CD (caret or wedge)^
Central vowels
- G (^) ] → (^) mid- back vowel not all (^) dialects of english distinguish
- Cd (^) ]→ (^) low vowel the lax (^) vowels .
Ch. 3- Phonology ° (^) Phonetics : study of^ individual^ sounds °
Phonology
: organization of speech sounds in a particular
language . ° (^) Natural class : set of (^) sounds that have (^) certain (^) phonetic features in (^) common (^).
- must all share one or more (^) features and there should be (^) no other sounds that have this^ feature or combo or features (^). Labials t E (^) M = ¥ I
{ Sibilants (strident is ° (^) Labials : (^) bilabials a (^) labiodentals - have (^) one or both lips as^ active^ articulator ° (^) Sibilants : have a
high
- pitched hissing sound quality. ° (^) Obstruents : (^) stops
, fricatives^ t^ affricates^ produced^ with^ an^ obstruction^ of^ airflow^.
° Sonorant consonants : nasals, liquids and glides - produced with a
relatively open^ passage
for the (^) airflow (^).
- (^) vowels are (^) Sonorants Alveolar obstruents Voiced labial consonants (^) Velar oral (^) stops [t,^ d,^ s,^2 ]^
- [ b. v, m^ , w]
- [ k , (^) g] Interdental fricatives (^) High tense (^) vowels (^) Low vowels [E^ , -0] -^ Ci^ , u]^ -^ Cae,^ a]
Palatal sonorant^ voiced^ sibilants^ o^ phonemes : mental representations of
speech sounds^.
- Cj ]^ - G. 3.dz]^ ° (^) Phonetic (^) Alphabet : universal
Ch (^). 4 - Morphology ° Morphology : study of (^) internal structure of words. ° Morphemes : (^) are the smallest / meaningful unit words (^) are (^) composed.
o free morphemes : are morphemes that can stand alone as words .
ex. happy, true, real, cat ° (^) Bound morphemes :^ cannot^ stand^ alone ex. (^) Un - ,
- able , - (^) S o (^) Roots (^) for stems) : irreducible core of (^) the word which contains (^) the word's principal meaning . o (^) Affixes l l prefixes suffixes ° (^) Un - , re^ -
- (^) able ,
- s ° (^) Derivational morphemes :^ change the^ meaning or^ lexical^ category of^ the^ words to (^) which they attach (^). ex. un - , re - ,^ -^ able ° (^) Inflectional morphemes :^ serve^ a^ grammatical function, never^ creating a new (^) word but only a^ different^ form (^) of the (^) same word (^). ex. -^ s, -^ ed ° (^) Content morphemes : (^) morphemes with (^) an (^) independent meaning. ex. Cat, happy, un^ - , re^ - ° (^) Function morphemes :^ morphemes^ that^ only provide (^) grammatical information. ex. inflectional (^) morphemes, conjunctions ° (^) Simple word :^ a word
consisting of^ a^ single morpheme;^ a^
word that (^) cannot be (^) analyzed into smaller (^) meaningful parts. ° Complex word : (^) a word consisting of^ a^ root^ plue^ one^ or^ more^ affixes. ex. untrue,^ cats, believed^ , unreal^ etc. ° Compound word^ :^ a word (^) formed (^) by 2 or (^) more (^) simple or complex words. ex. blackboard, window^ cleaner^ etc. Lexical (content (^) (open -^ class) Grammatical (^) (function (closed -^ class) o (^) Nouns, verbs, adjectives (^0) Prepositions , pronouns adverbs determiners, Auxiliary ° (^) New members (^) can (^) be freely Negation, conjunctions added to^ this^ category, 0 Additions (^) are (^) seldom consists of^ lexical and (^) made to (^) this derivational morphemes category.
Ch . S - Syntax LC function^ Examples
Adjectives
° may modify^ a^ e.^ she^ is^ very X ° (^) Word order matters in noun^ but^ Jane^ is^ X-er. English. o (^) Have a (^) comparative. (^) I want the X form and^ a^ Cer) ° (^) In
linguistics,^
lexical (^) categories are defined (^) by how they function in a sentence (^). superlative form (^) ,^ book. (their^ distribution^ is^ important).^ fest " or " most (C Function^ Examples
Noun nbyodiadfjiectidue,^ in^ the^ garage Practice
- may follow - I need determiners a blue X^ Identify the (^) syntax
- category Replace I, (^) you,he pronoun nouns she ,^ it,^ we
they , them,^ A.)^ Bill^ always falls^ asleep during LC^ function^ Examples
US (^) , me long
movies . (
preposition)^ Adverbs • generally Iwalked taking
ly
X- ly to
b.) Jane met (^) me at the corner^.^ School (C Function^ Examples endings^.
(verb)^ Bill treats
- May be o They can Verbs (^) modified X (^). • (^) Answers (^) Fred X (^).
by adverbs^. They x-^ ed^ C.)^ I^ need^ to^ buy a^ new^ stapler. how?^ when?
auxiliaries (noun) where? how X the
- (^) can be (^). They are d.) (^) George received (^) a (^) passionate love letter. often ? women^ go negated X- ing the ( ball (^). adjective)^ to^ work
e.) you should^ not^ eat^ right before the^ game.
- (^) Auxiliary Verb) Pthhrraasessttrruueittuurree thyrse ' soso.my?..::tej ? is: I. english Prepositional Phrase Sentence (^) (s) (^) g.) Al (^) parked the (^) Winnebago. 1.)
every
word (^) is a member
(determiner)^
of (^) a
category
. Syntax Tree^ w/^ constituents^ 2.)^ a^ phrase is^ a^ string of words that (^) unites into (^) a yes (^) sentence. No yes^ 3.) phrases can^ be^ combined to (^) make (^) a bigger phrase^. (phrase structure rules ) 4.) The (^) way in^ which^ phrases are combined^ in^ a^ sentence. o (^) constituent : (^) coherent syntactic unit. ° Constituency Tests :^ tells us which elements belong together. (substitution^ t^ Movement Test)
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Ch (^). 8 - Language Acquisition ° (^) Grammar : a system in^ people's^ mind^ that^ enables^ them^ to^ combine^ sounds and (^) words into (^) an infinite number of (^) sentences (^). ° Overgeneralization errors^ by children^ → "^ holded! " foots "
- absence of (^) a (^) sentence =/ ungrammatical ° (^) Innateness Theory : Language is^ encoded in^ DNA, capacity for language is innate
- (^) we are programmed to (^) learn language Innateness Accounts for^ o^ Common (^) hypothesis :^ children imitate their parents.
° Speed of acquisition
° (^) ease of (^) acquisition o Reinforcement hypothesis : children (^) learn to ° uniformity in^ adult (^) grammars speak because (^) they are (^) praised and rewarded o (^) universal (^) principles when (^) they use the
right forms.
o (^) problem of (^) lack of (^) evidence ° (^) absence of ungrammatical utterances^ ° Analogy Hypothesis^ :^ children
- say foots by drawing^ an analogy based ° (^) Children learn grammar rules ) on vast^ majority of
english nouns
L with^ -^ S^ plurals. Active (^) construction of a Grammar Theory stages^ of (^) Development (Based (^) on (^) input) 1.) Babbling ° (^) The
stages of^ acquisition^ are^
universal. 2.)
Single word 3.) (^) Two- (^) word ° (^) Pre linguistic → crying ,^ cooing^ ,^ gurgling^
Telegraphic ° (^) The newborn mind (^) is not a (^) blank slate (^). ° Babies ignore non (^) linguistic differences
between all possible languages constrasts.
(lost^ by age 1) o Babbling -7^4
- 6 months infant (^) began to (^) produce noises (^). ° (^) Vocalizations (^) produced by deaf babies are qualitatively different; unsystematic ,^ nonrepetitive^ t^ random^. ° By (^12) months → (^) Holophrastic (^) stage (one word (^) to (^) express a whole sentence)
- (^) Simplification :^ mostly monosyllabic CV^ utterances.
- sounds that (^) are infrequent are used (^) last (^). perception > (^) production
- (^) Two - (^) word stage : (^) children start to
put words^ together
( 18 -^24 months) - mostly content words (^) ; no (^) morphological markers (^). ° Telegraphic stage^ → (^) utterances (^) more than 2 words (3,4 or 5 more)
- usually missing^ function (^) words ° Telegraphic utterances conform^ to^ the^ word^ order^ of^ language being learned (^).
- subject ( Agent)^ vs^.^ Object^ (patient) Inflections ° (^) Overgeneralizations - applying the^ usual^ rules^ of o Plural - S language to (^) exceptional cases (^). ° (^) Possessive - ' s o (^) prepositions (a, the) (^0) Overextensions : word^ is^ given a^ wider^ range of^ meaning. o Progressive - ing ex. (^) calling all^ animals^ " doggie " ° (^) 3rd (^) person singular
- S
o past - ed o^ underextensions :^ word^ used^ correctly but^ too
restricted ly o (^) children make (^) errors that (^) are (^) grammatical in other (^) languages. ° (^) Universal Grammar (^) : rule - governed principles^ of language that^ are^ shared^ by all languages.^ (innate) ° (^) Children build
grammars ;^ grammars^
are within^ the^ range of^ possibilities made available by UG (^).
- Age span^ during which^ individuals^ must^ be^ exposed^ to^ language to (^) acquire native speaker (^) competence
- first language acquisition^ → (^) Birth to age 2
critical (^) age periods
- Second language acquisition^ : (^) Before puberty
