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Ch. 2 - section 2. I i s^ "
4 3 Theories of (^) Human Development ' " ° Theory : (^) set of ideas used^ to describe (^) t (^) explain human (^) development.
- guides the (^) collection of^ new facts^ lobserrations clarifies (^).. (^).. Four (^) Major theoretical^ Viewpoints 1.) (^) what is most (^) important to (^) study 1.) Psychoanalytic →^ Sigmund Freud 2.) what (^) can be (^) predicted t § }, How it^ should be studied^ Erik^ Erikson How (^) findings should^ be^ interpreted. 2.) Learning →^ Ivan^
Pavlov
t
Nature v. S Nurture John Watson
° Children have (^) the °^ Human development (^) 3.) same (^) developmental takes Cognitive^ Development^ Tv
many paths
milestones at^ similar^ depending on (^) experiences Piaget ages because^ of (^) over a lifetime (^). maturational forces^. 4.) Systems theory^ → Urie ° (^) Environmental Influence > - Bronfenbrenner ° (^) Differences influence : physical t^ social physical t^ social key Development^ Issue^
Activity
° Extent to which human are active in
creating t influencing environment t^ thus (^) developmental , or^ are passively shaped (^) by forces^ beyond^ their^ control^. Active Passive ° (^) Human (^) curious t active
,^ orchestrate^
° Shaped (^) by environmental^ t^ biological own (^) development (^) through exploring world forces^ beyond human^ control^. t shaping environment. Discontinuity continuity (^) ° Development is^ a^ series^ of^ steps, each ° Development is^ a^ slow^ process^ lifts^ to^ a^ new^ , more^ advanced^ level^. occurring in^ small^ steps^ t^ no^ sudden changes. ° Developmental (^) stages
° Quantitative →
changes in degree
'Universal context (^) Specific ° stage theorists^ believe^ stages ° Development influenced^ by context^ t^ thus happen (^) universally. Varies^. ° Development proceeds^ in^ certain universal (^) directions section 2. ° Psychoanalytic Theory
- people are^ driven^ by motives^ t^ emotional^ conflicts ( Sigmund Freud)
largely
unconscious
- shaped (^) by early experiences
° Newborns are ..
. I (^) .) inherently selfish (^) & aggressive 2.) Driven^ by
instincts
° (^) Unconscious motivation : power of (^) instincts t other inner forces (^) to influence behavior without^ awareness (^). Components of^ Personality 1.) Id → - exists at birth
- instinctual
- immediate gratification Ego → -^ rational
Emerges (^) during infancy Superego → - Internalized moral^ standard
Develops around^ 3-^6 yrs old (^) as (^) parents ' moral
- (^) Finds acceptable t^ ethnical^ outlets^ for^ Id^ impulses Psychosexual (^) Stages Oral - focus on mouth (source^ of^ pleasure) Anal - potty (^) training Phallic -^ sexual^ desire for^ opposite sex (^) parent Latency
urges directed towards (^) schoolwork t play Gential - puberty
° Operant (^) conditioning
- behavior increases (^) or (^) decreases depending on^ the (^) consequences.
- behaviors repeated if^ have^ desired^ consequences
behaviors decreases^ if^ have^ undesirable^ consequences ° Reinforcement : (^) consequence makes^ response more^ likely to^ happen. ° (^) Punishment: (^) consequence makes (^) response less likely to (^) happen. ° (^) Extinction: gradual lesson ing t (^) diss appearance of^ behaviors^ that^ are^ no longer reinforced (^). ° (^) Social - Cognitive Theory (Albert^ Bandura)
- Humans are (^) cognitive beings who actively processes^ information^
- (^) not just products of^ environment^.
- Active processing
of information is
critical in^ learning,
behavior t
development.
- Emphasis on^ the^ motivating t (^) self- regulating role^
of
cognition in^ human behavior. ° Observational Learning
- learning through^ observing^ other (^) people's (^) behavior
- Bobo doll (^) experiment
o Social
Cognitive Theory
-3 Latent
Learning
- learning occurs but is not evident in behavior. Vicarious Reinforcement (^) (punishment
- learner becomes (^) more or (^) less likely to (^) perform behavior^ based on observed (^) consequences for^ models. I ' qigong @ Self- efficacy O - continuous (^) reciprocal interaction among person, their behavior^ and^ their
- r ll n l^ l^ environment. l l (^) U n
Strengths weaknesses ° (^) Precise t testable (^0) Doesn't clearly describe (^) typical o (^) Used to understand behavior (^) course of human (^) development. at any (^) age ° Doesn't (^) demonstrate learning o Real - world (^) applications responsible for^ developmental (^) changes. (^0) Too (^) little (^) emphasis on biological
influences.
Section 2 -^4 o Piaget
- intelligence is (^) a (^) process that^ helps an^ organism adapt^ to^ its^ environment.
- children are not born with innate ideas about reality or only taught by^ others
- Interaction between developing brain t^ experiences allows to progress from stage to stage of^ cognitive^ development. ° (^) Constructivism # - children actively
construct their
understanding of (^) the world
based on their interactions with^ it
- Children can (^) develop ideas not taught to^ them by adults. ° (^) Invariant (^) sequence
- all children (^) progress through stages in^ order^ they are^ listed
- Don't skip (^) stages
many process^
at different
rates
Strengths weaknesses ° Accepted (^) by most^ developmentalists^ o stages (^) may not^ be (^) applicable for
° Tested t
largely supported^ empirically^ all (^) types of^ problems ° Influenced education t child rearing practices. o (^) Underestimated cognitive abilities
of infants +
young children ° (^) Too little emphasis on^ social^ and
cultural influences
1.) (^) Physical t^ physiological characteristics 2.) (^) Chronic diseases associated with aging (^35
- 40 %) 3.) (^) General intelligence (^) moderately inheritable (^ 50% 4.) (^) Attitudes t (^) interests influenced by (^) genetics Section 3.5^ o^ the effect of genes depend^ on^ the kind of (^) environment (^) we (^) experience
- how we respond to^ environment^ depends on^ our^ genes.
° Combination of
high
- risk (^) genes t (^) high - risk (^) environment more likely trigger^ psychological problems.
° Diathesis - Stress Model :
psychological problems^
that resulted from interaction and
experience of^ stressful^ events^. ° (^) Differential Susceptibility hypothesis^ : genetic influence make more (^) susceptible to environmental influences. Ways (^) genes +^ environment^ are^ interrelated 1.) Passive (^) → children's^ home environment (^) correlated with genotype 2.) (^) Evocative → (^) children's genotype evokes certain^ reactions from other (^) people 3.) Active (^) → children's genotypes
influence kinds of environments
they seek ° (^) Interactions = (^) different genetic makeups^ react differently to (^) experiences (^) they have ° (^) Correlations = different genetic makeups^ have (^) different (^) experiences ° (^) Gene Therapy : (^) interventions that substitute normal
genes
for (^) genes associated^ with^ a
disease or disorder.
- (^) alters a person's^ genetic makeup
Ch (^). 4 -^ Prenatal^ Development and Birth Conception ° (^) I (^) in 4 couples experience^ difficulty (^) conceiving.
- Assisted reproductive (^) technologies :^ medical^ techniques used to (^) increase (^) fertility. CARTS) ° (^) Artificial (^) insemination : injecting sperm^ into^ a^ woman 's (^) uterus. ° (^) In vitro (^) fertilization (^)... Embryologists
- several (^) eggs removed o (^) scientist who studies early growth from (^) ovary. and (^) development (^) during the^ prenatal period.
Eggs manually^ combined^ 0 prenatal development^ into^3 stages with (^) sperm in^ laboratory ① Germinal
- fertilized eggs returned^ ②^ Embryonic to a woman's^ uterus^. ③^ Fetal ° (^) Germinal Period (^) last (^2) weeks o Zygote -746 (^) chromosomes (^) (divides (^) multiple times through mitosis
- (^3) trimesters
only 50 ' l. of (^) fertilized Ova successfully implant^
in uterus .
Embryonic Period ° Organogenesis : when every organ takes (^) shape. o (^) Amnion (^) : watertight fluid^ filled^ membrane that (^) protects embryo. ° (^) Chorion : membrane surrounding amnion
- attaches villi (^) to (^) uterine
- lining
becomes
lining of (^) placenta
- (^) Neural Tube : beginnings of (^) brain (^) apparent
after 3 - 4 weeks
- (^) neural plate folds^ to^ form^ neural^ tube
- (^) lower portions of^ the^ brain^ develop earliest. o spina
bifida :
part of^ spinal cord^ not^ fully encased in^ protective covering ° Anencephaly : (^) main (^) portion of brain above stem doesn't (^) develop.
° I out of 2,
pregnancies
the neural^ tube^ doesn't
fully close.
Effects of smoking during^ pregnancy^
cocaine
- risk of miscarriage 0 contributes^ to^ fetal
prematurity,^ growth^ retardation t (^) small size malnourishment, lower^ growth
respiratory problems &^ birth^ weight
- cleft (^) lips t (^) plates 0 increased activity t^ greater
- central (^) nervous system impairment.^ Stimulus^ reactivity in^ first year. Alcohol effects on pregnancy
- alcohol (^) can easily cross^ the^ placenta which can (^) disrupt neuronal (^) migration t lead to neuronal^ death
- FAS) fetal (^) Alcohol Syndrome Examples of^ Teratogens 0 Mother^ experiences^ severe^ stress^ t^ anxiety ° (^) Rubella during pregnancy.
° Diabetes
° (^) STD's (AIDS) - faster (^) t irregular heart rate ° Syphilis o^ Malnutrition t Obesity o (^) Environmental Hazards (radiation)
increases the risk^ of
miscarriage , heart^ defects, (^) kidney problems low birth^ weight , schizophrenia
Ch.^5 - Body, Brain^ t^ Health ° (^) Endocrine System : (^) glands that (^) secrete hormones directly
into the bloodstream.
° Pituitary gland^ : "master (^) gland' ' , triggers^ release of hormones (^) from all other endocrine (^) glands
- produces growth hormone^.
° Nervous
system
- (^) central (^) nervous (^) system = (^) brain t (^) spinal cord^. o (^) peripheral nervous (^) system -^ neural^ tissues in the (^) body. ° (^) Neuron is the basic unit of the nervous (^) system
FEM
1
Nerve
° Cephalocaudal^ principle^ :^ growth occurs^ in^ a^ head^ to^ tail^ direction. impulse o (^) proximodistal principle :^ growth proceeds^ from center of (^) the body to (^) the (^) extremities. ° Orthogenetic principle^ : (^) development starts globally t undifferentiated^. (moves toward^ hierarchical (^) integration). ° (^) Health is a lifelong process^.
- determined by both^ genetic^ t environmental influences.
- multidimensional
- occurs in sociohistorical (^) context
gains t^ losses
The Infant Brain
° Synaptogenesis^ :^ growth^
of synapses.
° Synaptic pruning : (^) removal of unused (^) synapses. o plasticity : brain is (^) responsive to^ an individual's (^) experiences , develop^ in (^) a (^) variety of (^) ways. ° (^) there (^) is rapid (^) growth (^) during the^ first^ few^ months^ of^ life^.
- (^) at (^) the age of (^2) they are (^) already half (^) of their adult height.
- risk of obesity. ° (^) Reflexes : unlearned t involuntary (^) response to^ a^ stimulus^.
- survival t primitive reflexes
° (^) Secular trend : trend in society saying^ toward (^) earlier maturationt greater body size.
- 25% of teens do (^60) minutes of physical activity
- (^) 1/3 of teens (^) are either underweight or^ obese ° Neurogenesis : (^) process of^ generating new^ neurons^ across^ the^ life^ span.
- (^) culture affect brain (^) activity ° (^) Elders end up with^ S^
- 30% fewer (^) neurons than in early adulthood.
° Premenstrual
syndrome CPM^ :^ bloating,^ moodiness,^ breast^ tenderness^ t^ headaches.
° Premenstrual
dysphoric disorder^ (PDD):^ severe^ form^ of^ PMS^. ° Menopause :^ ending of^ a^ woman's^ menstrual^ periods^ in^ midlife. ° (^) Andro pause :^ slower^ decrease^ in male (^) hormones. Chapter 6-^ Sensation, Perception^ and^ Action ° (^) Sensation : process (^) by which^ sensory information^ is^ detected^ and^ transmitted^ to^ the^ brain^. ° Perception :^ interpretation^ /^ understanding of^ sensory input.
o vision
converting light^ stimulation^ entering the (^) eye to (^) electrochemical signals in the^ brain (^). ° (^) Newborn vision → (^) can track slow - moving picture^ or (^) objects. ° (^) Visual (^) accommodation: ability of^ tens^
of the eye to
change shape^ to bring objects^ at different (^) distances to focus. ° (^) Infants (^) can see different (^) colors but (^) can't discriminate some colors (^). Form (^) Perception visual (^) Preferences ° (^) l (^) months = (^) focus (^) on outer contours of (^) objects. ° (^2) months = focus (^) on interiors of figures.
I Contour
° (^3) months = (^) start to recognize objects^
t easier to^ shift focus .
(infants^ use (^) cues to determine (^) object wholeness).^2 Movement ° (^) Infants (^) prefer drawings of faces regarding facial^ perception.
Complexity
- perceive a^ meaningful face^ by 2 -^3 months^ of^ age. ° (^) Size constancy : (^) can (^) perceive an (^) object as the (^) same size (^) despite changes in (^) distance. ( (^4) months) Visual cliff →
° Intuitive theories :
organized systems^ of^ knowledge that^ allow^ children^ to^ make sense of^ the^ world^. ° Hearing : moving air molecules vibrate the^ eardrum.
- Newborns can hear^ better^ than^ they can^ see
- can localize sounds
hearing (^) begins prenatally
° Infants
prefer human^ speech^ over^ nonspeech^ sounds.
- can recognize vowel^ sounds^ from^ native^ language within^ hours^ of^ birth
- can discriminate (^) phenomes by 2- (^3) months.
- can recognize t (^) prefers mother's (^) voice (^).
° Chemical sense
rely on^ detection^ of^ chemical^ molecules^ for^ sense^. (babies^ can (^) distinguish sweet, bitter^ t^ sour)
- genetics plays^ a^ role^ in^ perceptions of^
bitterness t sweetness .
° Olfaction works well at birth t starts
prenatally.
° Somaesthetic senses :
body senses^ →^ touch, temperature,^ pain^ and^ kinesthetic (^) sense (^).
- touch = operating before birth (develops in the (^) cephalo caudal (^) direction) ° Early perceptual^ development^ are^ complete^ by the age
of 2.
° Locomotion : movement from one
place to^ another. ° (^) Gross motor (^) skills : involves (^) large muscles (^) t whole body or limb^ movements. ° (^) Fine motor skills : precise movements^ of (^) the hands (^) t fingers or^ feet^ and^ toes^. ° Rhythmic stereotypes^
: repetitive movements seen in infants
shortly before^ a^ new^ motor^ skill emerges. ° Dynamic systems theory : (^) development happens over time (^) through different movements and modifying behavior. ° (^) Sense function is (^) integrated way at^ birth^.
° Cross- modal
perception : ability to (^) use one sense to (^) identify something already familar.
° Attention:
focusing of^ perception^ and^ cognition on^ a^ particular^ thing. ° Orienting system^ : (^) attentional (^) system that reacts to (^) events in the (^) environment. ° Focusing system^ :^ attentional^ system^ that deliberately seeks^ out (^) t maintains (^) attention to events.
° Sounds above 75 decibels can contribute to
hearing loss (^).
Critiques of^ Piaget's^ Theory 1.) underestimated young minds (^). 2.) wrongly claimed that (^) broad stages of (^) development exists failed to adequately explain development. 4.) Gave limited (^) attention to (^) Socia influences on (^) cognitive development ° (^) Neuroconstructivism
.^ - theory:^ new^ knowledge is (^) constructed (^) through changes in the^ neural structures of^ the brain.^0 Object
permanence
: (^) fundamental understandin that objects continue^ to^ exist^ when^ they^
Sensorimotor (^) Period (^) are (^) no longer able to (^) be seen (^). (substages) OA - not -^ B (^) error : (^) tendency of^8 -^12 month^ -^ old 1.) Reflex^ activity infants to^ search^ for^ a^ hidden^ object in^ the 2.) (^) Primary circular reactions^ place they last^ saw^ it, instead^ of^ its^ new § . } Coordination of^ secondary reactions (^) hiding place. 5.) (^) Territory circular^ reactions^0 Symbolic capacity:^ ability to^ use 6.) Beginning of (^) thoughts images,^ words (^) or actions to stand^ for objects and^ experiences. o primary circular reactions^ → infant's^ repetition of (^) interacting acts (^) centered on their own (^) body. ° Secondary circular^ reactions^ →^ infant 's (^) repetition of (^) interesting actions^ on objects.
° Coordination of
secondary schemes^ → (^) infant's^ combining of^ actions to solve problems.^ (^8
circular reactions -3^ infant's
experimenting
with actions to find new ways to^ solve
problems or^ produce (^) interesting effects^ (^12
- (^18) months) (^). ° Beginning of (^) thought → (^) symbolic capacity becomes (^) firmly established and^ one (^) object can (^) represent another.^ (^18 months) Preschoolers :^ Symbolic (^) Thinking
° Pre
operational → (^) not (^) yet having logical^ mental (^) operations. ° (^) Perceptual salience → (^) obvious features of (^) an (^) object have disproportional influence^ on^ the^ perceptions^ and^ thoughts
of
young children (^).
° (^) Conservation : idea that (^) certain properties of^ an^ object^ of^ substance^ do^ not^ change when^ its
appearance is^ altered^ superificiall^ y.
° (^) Decentration : ability to focus on two^ or^ more^ dimensions^ of^ a (^) problem at once ° (^) Centration : tendency to center attention (^) on a (^) single aspect of^ the^ problem. ° Reversibility :^ process^ of^ mentally reversing^ an^ action ° (^) Transformational thought : ability to (^) conceptualize transformations. o (^) Static thought : thought is^ fixed on end States rather than on (^) the changes that (^) transform one state to^ another. ° Egocentrism :^ tendency to^ view^ the^ world^ from^ the^ person's^ own^ perspective and^ fail^ to recognize that^ others^ may have different^ points of view (^).
° Class Inclusion :
logical (^) understanding that^ parts^ or^ subclasses^ are^ included^ in^ the^ whole class (^) and that (^) the whole is greater than
any
of its (^) parts. o (^) Seri ation : (^) logical operation that (^) allows mentally ordering^ a set^ of (^) stimuli along a (^) quantifiable
dimension .
° Transitivity :^ ability^ to recognize the^ logical^ relations^ among elements^ in^ a^ serial^ order. Formal (^) operations stage o (^) Hypothetical - deductive reasoning : (^) form of (^) problem solving that starts with^ general or^ abstract ideas and (^) deduces (^) specific
implications.
Ch.^8
- Memory and (^) Information processing ° Retrograde Amnesia^ :^ inability^ to retrieve old (^) memories (^).
- memories before (^) an accident ° Anterograde Amnesia^ : inability to^ form^ new^ long^
- term (^) memories
- from brain damage ° Memory : ability to store and remember information about (^) past events.
- NS maturation combined (^) with (^) experience enables adults to (^) have greater memory capacity^.
° Information
Processing Approach^ : emphasizes the basic mental (^) processes involved in (^) attention , perception^
t decision -
making.
Types of^ Memory ° (^) Explicit memory : memory aware of having,^
can express in^ words^ -^2 kinds.
1.) Semantic (^) memory : (^) facts , verifiable^ memories 2.) (^) Episodic memory : (^) personal experiences ,
not verifiable
° Implicit (^) memory : memory of^ something you know, or^ know^ how^ to^ do
- automatic, unconscious, difficult to bring to (^) awareness (^). ° Memory has (^) a neural (^) basis (^) → hippocampus :^ structure^ in^ medial^ temporal ¢ lobe helps with^ the formation of new (^) episodic
memories
° Problem
solving : (^) use of (^) the (^) informational processing system^ to reach^ a^ goal or (^) arrive to (^) a (^) decision . ° (^) Executive control processes :^ processes that^ directly and monitor the selection (^) , organization,^ manipulation^ and (^) interpretation of information . ° (^) Parallel Processing
carrying out (^) multiple cognitive activities simultaneously
rather than in a
sequence (^). Methods of^ Assessing Memory ° (^) Habituation : learning not to respond to (^) a (^) repeated simulus
- Newborns are (^) capable of^ recognition memory . ° Operant (^) conditioning :^ using positive reinforcement^ to^ test^ long- term (^) implicit memory.
early memories are cue^ - dependent and context (^) specific. ° Object Search^ : (^) A -^ not (^) B task , infants (^) display memory through looking behavior^ by^ 5 - (^6) months (^). ° (^) Imitation : (^) infants (^) can imitate behavior at (^9) months . ° Memory is (^) less context (^) specific (^) by age
- can (^) use words (^) to (^) reconstruct events that (^) happened months
earlier
° By
9 months
,^ an^
infant can
problem solve^ and^ by (^14) months infant have learned that^ adults^ are (^) useful (^) sources of^ info^. Memory Development
- Changes in (^) basic (^) capacities
- Changes in^ memory strategies
- Increased knowledge
of
memory
- (^) Increased knowledge of (^) the world (^). ° Changes in (^) basic (^) capacities → long-term storage^ capacity^ does not -^ change^. Encoding of^ sensory information^ improves
- Consolidation t storage of (^) memories (^) improves
Speed of^ mental^ processes improves with^ age ° (^) Short - (^) term memory capacity^ → Domain^ specific ° Changes
in
memory strategies
to use
memory aid strategies
when
goal
is
personally relevant (^).
- children under 4 struggle with flexibility
- (^4) to 5 year old (^) can switch strategies . ° (^) Perseveration errors (^) -* continuing to (^) use previous successful strategies despite^ lack (^) of (^) success (^). ° (^) Rehearsal : memory strategy^ that involves repeating the items to^ be^ remembered .
o Elaboration^ →
memory (^) strategy that (^) involves creating meaningful^
links
between (^) bits of (^) info to (^) be (^) remembered (^). Four stages to successful memory (^) strategy use 1.) Mediation deficiency 2.) (^) Production deficiency 3.) (^) utilization deficiency 4.) (^) Effective strategy
