Introduction to basic manufacturing processes and workshop technology, Lecture notes of Management Fundamentals

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PREFACE

Manufacturing and workshop practices have become important in the industrial envi- ronment to produce products for the service of mankind. The knowledge of manufacturing practices is highly essential for all engineers and technocrats for familiarizing themselves with modern concepts of manufacturing technologies. The basic need is to provide theoreti- cal and practical knowledge of manufacturing processes and workshop technology to all the engineering students. Therefore, an attempt has been made through this book to present both the theoretical and practical knowledge of these subjects. Considering the general needs of engineering students in the country and the fact that they hardly get any exposure to hand tools, equipments, machines and manufacturing setups, a basic course in manufac- turing science remains a core subject for all the branches of engineering. This book covers most of the syllabus of manufacturing processes/technology, workshop technology and work- shop practices for engineering diploma and degree classes prescribed by different universi- ties and state technical boards. While preparing the manuscript of this book, the examina- tion requirements of the engineering students have also been kept in mind. The book is written in very simple language so that even an average student can easily grasp the subject matter. Some comparisons have been given in tabular form and the stress has been given on figures for better understanding of tools, equipments, machines and manufacturing set- ups used in various manufacturing shops. The contents include exposure to bench work and fitting, smithy and forging, sheet metal work, wood and wood working, casting, welding and machine shop practices. At the end of each chapter, a number of questions have been provided for testing the student’s understanding about the concept of the subject. The whole text has been organized in twenty six chapters.

The first chapter presents the brief introduction of the subject with modern concepts of manufacturing technology needed for the competitive industrial environment. Chapter 2 provides the necessary details of plant and shop layouts. General industrial safety measures to be followed in various manufacturing shops are described in detail in chapter 3.

Chapters 4–8 provide necessary details regarding fundamentals of ferrous materials, non-ferrous materials, melting furnaces, properties and testing of engineering materials and heat treatment of metals and alloys.

Chapters 9–13 describe various tools, equipments and processes used in various shops such as carpentry, pattern making, mold and core making, foundry shop. Special casting methods and casting defects are also explained at length.

Chapters 14–16 provide basic knowledge of mechanical working of metals. Fundamental concepts related to forging work and other mechanical working processes (hot and cold working) have been discussed at length with neat sketches.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

On completion of the book ‘Introduction to Basic Manufacturing

Processes and Workshop Technology’, foremost I acknowledge the grace

of God; and the blessing of my father late Sh. Sada Ram, my mother Smt.

Sona Devi, my respected teacher Prof. G.S. Sekhon and my elders. I wish to

acknowledge my sincere thanks to Sh. Shailendra Kumar, lecturer in Hindu

College of Engineering, Sonepat, Haryana for assisting me at various stages

during preparation of the manuscript. I also acknowledge the students and

colleagues whose association has given me the experience of teaching this

and related subjects and hence the manuscript of this book could be possible.

I am very happy to record my sense of gratitude to my wife Promilla, daugh-

ter Swati and son Ravi Kant for their patience, understanding and moral

support without which it would have not been possible for me to complete

this book.

Finally, I am thankful to our publisher, New Age International (P) Ltd. Publishers for bringing out the book in a record time and such a nice format.

RAJENDER SINGH

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1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Manufacturing is the backbone of any industrialized nation. Manufacturing and technical staff in industry must know the various manufacturing processes, materials being processed, tools and equipments for manufacturing different components or products with optimal process plan using proper precautions and specified safety rules to avoid accidents. Beside above, all kinds of the future engineers must know the basic requirements of workshop activities in term of man, machine, material, methods, money and other infrastructure facilities needed to be positioned properly for optimal shop layouts or plant layout and other support services effectively adjusted or located in the industry or plant within a well planned manufacturing organization.

The complete understanding of basic manufacturing processes and workshop technology is highly difficult for any one to claim expertise over it. The study deals with several aspects of workshops practices also for imparting the basic working knowledge of the different engineering materials, tools, equipments, manufacturing processes, basic concepts of electro- mechanical controls of machine tools, production criteria’s, characteristics and uses of various testing instruments and measuring or inspecting devices for checking components or products manufactured in various manufacturing shops in an industrial environment. It also describes and demonstrates the use of different hand tools (measuring, marking, holding and supporting tools, cutting etc.), equipments, machinery and various methods of manufacturing that facilitate shaping or forming the different existing raw materials into suitable usable forms. It deals with the study of industrial environment which involves the practical knowledge in the area of ferrous and non ferrous materials, their properties and uses. It should provide the knowledge of basic workshop processes namely bench work and fitting, sheet metal, carpentry, pattern making, mould making, foundry, smithy, forging, metal working and heat treatment, welding, fastening, machine shop, surface finishing and coatings, assembling inspection and quality control. It emphasizes on basic knowledge regarding composition, properties and uses of different raw materials, various production processes, replacement of or improvement over a large number of old processes, new and compact designs, better accuracy in dimensions, quicker methods of production, better surface finishes, more alternatives to the existing materials and tooling systems, automatic and numerical control systems, higher mechanization and greater output.

1 CHAPTER

Introduction 3

material into finished goods with application of different types of tools, equipments, machine tools, manufacturing set ups and manufacturing processes, is known as production. Generally there are three basic types of production system that are given as under.

1. Job production
2. Batch production
3. Mass production Job production comprises of an operator or group of operators to work upon a single job and complete it before proceeding to the next similar or different job. The production requirement in the job production system is extremely low. It requires fixed type of layout for developing same products.

Manufacturing of products (less in number say 200 to 800) with variety of similar parts with very little variation in size and shape is called batch production. Whenever the production of batch is over, the same manufacturing facility is used for production of other batch product or items. The batch may be for once or of periodical type or of repeated kinds after some irregular interval. Such manufacturing concepts are leading to GT and FMS technology. Manufacturing of products in this case requires process or functional layout.

Where as mass production involves production of large number of identical products (say more than 50000) that needs line layout type of plant layout which is highly rigid type and involves automation and huge amount of investment in special purpose machines to increase the production.

1.5 PROCESS PLANNING

Process planning consists of selection of means of production (machine-tools, cutting tools, presses, jigs, fixtures, measuring tools etc.), establishing the efficient sequence of operation, determination of changes in form, dimension or finish of the machine tools in addition to the specification of the actions of the operator. It includes the calculation of the machining time, as well as the required skill of the operator. It also establishes an efficient sequence of manufacturing steps for minimizing material handling which ensures that the work will be done at the minimum cost and at maximum productivity. The basic concepts of process planning are generally concerned with the machining only. Although these concepts may also be extended to other processes such as casting, forging, sheet metal forming, assembling and heat treatment as well.

1.6 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Manufacturing process is that part of the production process which is directly concerned with the change of form or dimensions of the part being produced. It does not include the transportation, handling or storage of parts, as they are not directly concerned with the changes into the form or dimensions of the part produced.

1.7 CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

For producing of products materials are needed. It is therefore important to know the characteristics of the available engineering materials. Raw materials used manufacturing of products, tools, machines and equipments in factories or industries are extracted from ores. The ores are suitably converted the metal into a molten form by reducing or refining processes

4 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology

in foundries. This molten metal is poured into moulds for providing commercial castings, called ingots. Such ingots are then processed in rolling mills to obtain market form of material supply in form of bloom, billets, slabs and rods. These forms of material supply are further subjected to various manufacturing processes for getting usable metal products of different shapes and sizes in various manufacturing shops. All these processes used in manufacturing concern for changing the ingots into usable products may be classified into six major groups as primary shaping processes, secondary machining processes, metal forming processes, joining processes, surface finishing processes and processes effecting change in properties. These are discussed as under.

1.7.1 Primary Shaping Processes

Primary shaping processes are manufacturing of a product from an amorphous material. Some processes produces finish products or articles into its usual form whereas others do not, and require further working to finish component to the desired shape and size. Castings need re-melting of scrap and defective ingots in cupola or in some other melting furnace and then pouring of the molten metal into sand or metallic moulds to obtain the castings. Thus the intricate shapes can be manufactured. Typical examples of the products that are produced by casting process are machine beds, automobile engines, carburetors, flywheels etc. The parts produced through these processes may or may not require to under go further operations. Some of the important primary shaping processes is:

(1) Casting, (2) Powder metallurgy, (3) Plastic technology, (4) Gas cutting, (5) Bending and (6) Forging.

1.7.2. Secondary or Machining Processes

As large number of components require further processing after the primary processes. These components are subjected to one or more number of machining operations in machine shops, to obtain the desired shape and dimensional accuracy on flat and cylindrical jobs. Thus, the jobs undergoing these operations are the roughly finished products received through primary shaping processes. The process of removing the undesired or unwanted material from the workpiece or job or component to produce a required shape using a cutting tool is known as machining. This can be done by a manual process or by using a machine called machine tool (traditional machines namely lathe, milling machine, drilling, shaper, planner, slotter). In many cases these operations are performed on rods, bars and flat surfaces in machine shops. These secondary processes are mainly required for achieving dimensional accuracy and a very high degree of surface finish. The secondary processes require the use of one or more machine tools, various single or multi-point cutting tools (cutters), job holding devices, marking and measuring instruments, testing devices and gauges etc. for getting desired dimensional control and required degree of surface finish on the workpieces. The example of parts produced by machining processes includes hand tools machine tools instruments, automobile parts, nuts, bolts and gears etc. Lot of material is wasted as scrap in the secondary or machining process. Some of the common secondary or machining processes are—

(1) Turning, (2) Threading, (3) Knurling, (4) Milling, (5) Drilling, (6) Boring, (7) Planning, (8) Shaping, (9) Slotting, (10) Sawing, (11) Broaching, (12) Hobbing, (13) Grinding, (14) Gear cutting, (15) Thread cutting and (16) Unconventional machining processes namely machining with Numerical Control (NC) machines tools or Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines tools using ECM, LBM, AJM, USM setups etc.

6 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology

either a very negligible amount of material is removed from the certain material is added to the surface of the job. These processes should not be misunderstood as metal removing processes in any case as they are primarily intended to provide a good surface finish or a decorative or protective coating on to the metal surface. Surface cleaning process also called as a surface finishing process. Some of the commonly used surface finishing processes are:

(1) Honing, (2) Lapping, (3) Super finishing, (4) Belt grinding, (5) Polishing, (6) Tumbling, (7) Organic finishes, (8) Sanding, (9) deburring, (10) Electroplating, (11) Buffing, (12) Metal spraying, (13) Painting, (14) Inorganic coating, (15) Anodizing, (16) Sheradising, (17) Parkerizing, (18) Galvanizing, (19) Plastic coating, (20) Metallic coating, (21) Anodizing and (22) Sand blasting.

1.7.6 Processes Effecting Change in Properties

Processes effecting change in properties are generally employed to provide certain specific properties to the metal work pieces for making them suitable for particular operations or use. Some important material properties like hardening, softening and grain refinement are needed to jobs and hence are imparted by heat treatment. Heat treatments affect the physical properties and also make a marked change in the internal structure of the metal. Similarly the metal forming processes effect on the physical properties of work pieces Similarly shot peening process, imparts fatigue resistance to work pieces. A few such commonly used processes are given as under:

(1) Annealing, (2) Normalising, (3) Hardening, (4) Case hardening, (5) Flame hardening, (6) Tempering, (7) Shot peeing, (8) Grain refining and (9) Age hardening.

In addition, some allied manufacturing activities are also required to produce the finished product such as measurement and assembly.

1.8. PRODUCT SIMPLIFICATION AND STANDARDISATION

The technique of simplification and standardization of product is closely inter-related that leads to higher efficiency in production, better quality and reduced production cost. Simplification is a process of determining limited number of grades, types and sizes of a components or products or parts in order to achieve better quality control, minimize waste, simplify production and, thus, reduce cost of production. By eliminating unnecessary varieties, sizes and designs, simplification leads to manufacture identical components or products for interchangeability and maintenance purposes of assembly of parts. Standardization is the important step towards interchangeable manufacture, increased output and higher economy. The technique of standardization comprises of determining optimal manufacturing processes, identifying the best possible engineering material, and allied techniques for the manufacture of a product and adhering to them very strictly so long as the better standards for all these are not identified. Thus definite standards are set up for a specified product with respect to its quality, required equipment, machinery, labor, material, process of manufacture and the cost of production. The identified standard with time for a specified product should never be taken as final for ever because improvement is always possible. It must accommodate the outcome of all the new researches in the manufacturing areas in order to keep pace with increasing global competition. Improvements over the existing standards in all respects should always be welcomed. The different standards prevailing in different industries may be of the types of managerial, design, manufacturing and technical needs. Managerial standards are applicable to administrative functions within industry. These include the company policy, accounting procedures, personnel policies, performance evaluation, control of expenditures, safety aspects,

Introduction 7

security procedures and regulations, etc. where as design, manufacturing and technical standards are needed for manufacturing concepts of the industry. These include design and manufacturing techniques, practices, materials and parts, supplies, methods of testing, drafting method, abbreviations and symbols, specifications and nomenclature, etc.

1.9 INSPECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL

A product is manufactured to perform desired functions. It must have a specified dimension such as length, width, height, diameter and surface smoothness to perform or accomplish its intended function. It means that each product requires a defined size, shape and other characteristics as per the design specifications. For manufacturing the product to the specified size, the dimensions should be measured and checked during and after the manufacturing process. It involves measuring the size, smoothness and other features, in addition to their checking. These activities are called measurement and inspection respectively.

In the era of globalization, every industry must pay sufficient attention towards maintaining quality because it is another important requirement or function of a production unit. If a manufacturing concern wants to survive for longer time and to maintain its reputation among the users, it should under all condition apply enough efforts not only to keep up the standard of quality of its products once established but to improve upon the same from time to time. For this, every manufacturing concern must maintain a full-fledged inspection and quality control department which inspects the product at different stages of its production. Vigilant inspection of raw materials and products depends upon the entire process of standardization. The production unit of manufacturing concern must produce identical products. However a minor variation may be allowed to a predetermined amount in their finished dimensions of the products. The two extremities of dimensions of the product are called limits. All the parts of which the finished dimensions lie within these limits are acceptable parts. This facilitates easy and quicker production, easy inspection, requires less skill on the part of worker and accommodates a slight inaccuracy in the machine as well, resulting in an over all reduction in the production cost of the part.

1.10 MECHANIZATION AND AUTOMATION

Mechanization means something is done or operated by machinery and not by hand. Mechanization of the manufacturing means is milestone oriented trend towards minimizing the human efforts to the extent of its possibility, by adopting mechanical and electrical means or methods for automating the different manufacturing processes. Such a trend may be in the area of automating and mechanizing the processes of material handling, loading and unloading of components, actual operations performed on the job or transportation, etc. But, no feedback is provided by the process, operation or machinery. Extension of mechanization of the production process is termed as automation and it is controlled by a closed loop system in which feedback is provided by the sensors. It controls the operations of different machines automatically. The automatic control may be applied for some operations or for all the operations of a machine or group of machines. Accordingly the machine will be known as semi-automatic or fully automatic. The term was identified shortly after the World War II at the Ford Motor Company to describe the automatic handling of materials and parts between the process operations. The word ‘automation’ is derived from the Greek word automatos meaning self-acting. Automation can also be defined as the process of following a predetermined sequence of operations with little or no human intervention, using specialized equipment and devices that