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Sensation is the process by which we receive transform, and process stimuli from our external world to create sensory experiences. Sensory receptors (specialized neurons) defect these stimuli and convert them into neural impulses. They are located in our sensory organs (eyes, ears nose, tongue, and skin) as well as in our joints and muscles. Absolute threshold : the smallest intensity of a stimulus that a person can detect. Ex.: when you are waiting at the train station and you start to hear the train/earthquake Difference threshold : the smallest amount of a change in stimulus needed to detect a difference. Ex.: say you are looking for your phone and pick up a winter jacket and you are able to tell your phone is there. The difference threshold of a stimulus is believed to be a constant proportion of the initial stimulus according to Weber's law. Signal detection Stimuli in the world around is are forms of signals, and signal detection theory predicts there are a number of factors that determine whether we can perceive them:

• The intensity of the stimulus
• The amount of background "noise"
• The biological and psychological characteristics of the receiver Sensory adaptation refers to the fact that our sensory systems become less sensitive to unchanging or constant stimuli over time Ex: wearing a wrist-ban or ring. L

Conduction deafness: damage to the middle ear including the eardrum or three bones used to amplify sound. Nerve deafness: hair cells in the inner ear is damaged artificial ears need to help sound transmission.

Sound

Sensing waves of vibration

Olfaction

The olfactory system is the sense of smell and it serves an important adaptive function in allowing us to detect (rotten) even dangerous foods. Chemicals in the air enter the olfactory nerve. This is the only sensory system where sensory information does not go through the thalamus, instead going to the olfactory bulb. From there, "smell informations " goes to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe for processing as well as to different areas of the limbic system. Odors are highly linked to memory and emotions (due to olfactory connections to the limbic system) AMPLITUD vs FREQUENCY Amplitud = intensity of a sound wave Frequency = number of complete cycles or vibrations of a sound wave.

Taste

There are openings in our tongues called taste buds, and inside them there are taste cells that are responsible for detecting the different taste sensations.

1. Sweet
2. Sour
3. Bitter
4. Salty
5. Umami 5 basic tastes: Genetically predispositioned to have more sensitivity to salt, pepper, and others spices. Inherit a sensitivity to bitter tastes. Some people Perception is the process by which the brain integrates, organizes, and interprets sensory impressions to create representations of the world. Perception is influenced both by the physical (sensory) features of a stimulus and also by our own experiences and expectations. The Gestalt laws of perceptual organization help us understand how the brain takes a large amount of information - collections of individual pieces of sensory data- and make sense of them in forming perceptions of meaningful whole or patterns. Figure and ground are two key principles of a visual perception. Figure: (in a visual image) is what we focus on. Ground: what the figure is set against. Bottom-up processing occurs when the brain recognizes meaningful patterns by piecing together bits and pieces of sensory information. Ex.: you put each piece into the puzzle, one at a time, and slowly build up a larger picture. Top-down processing is a way of processing by which the brain identifies meaningful wholes rather than piecemeal constructions. This is based more on acquired experience and knowledge of shapes and patterns. Ex.: Recognizing faces is another example because we've done it so many times! E ↑ ↑ ->

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States of consciousness: Multitasking = divided consciousness Inattentional blindness: The failure to notice something right in front of our eyes because our attention is directed elsewhere. The Circadian Rythm : The pattern of fluctuations in bodily processes that occur regularly each day. Circadian rhythms are synchronized with the 24-hour cycle of day and night. In humans, the sleep-wake cycle operates on a circadian rhythm. A small area of the hypothalamus (suprachiasmatic nucleus) is an internal body clock that regulates our sleep-wake cycles. Sleep stages Stages 1-2 → overall brain waves are still active. A person can still be easily awakened. NREM Consolidation ofdeclarative memories REM Rapid eye movement & increased autonomic activity → dreaming. Consolidation of procedural memories Stages 1-4 → slow wave sleep ~ 2

Why do we sleep?

1. There is a protective element : hiding from predators during certain hours of the day.
2. We conserve energy.
3. There is a restorative function : the brain subconsciously balances resources to different parts of the body.
4. Memory consolidation : very strong evidence of neuroplasticity when we are asleep.

Why do we dream?

Ernest Hartmann believes that dreams help us sort through possible solutions to every day problems. Activating-synthesis hypothesis: the brain stem sends out random electrical messages that reach the cerebral cortex during sleep. This fires off random associations and memories that the cerebral cortex tries to make sense of. Freud's wish fulfillment model: The brain disguises deep thoughts from their true emotional roots in an effort not to wake us. But therefore, the core of our thoughts is trying to get through. Consistent subjective evidence of people who are able to control their dreams. Lucid dreams SLEEP WAKE DISORDERS Narcolepsy Insomnia^ Sleep apnea Nightmare disorder Sleep terror disorder Sleepwalking disorder Chronic frightening dreams More intense than nightmares Difficulty Falling asleep Staying asleep Falling back asleep Immediate jump to REM sleep ->

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Drug abuse vs drug dependence Drug abuse: when the drug use patterns are associated with ongoing problems. Drug dependence: more serious problem that involves impaired control over use of a drug; as in it's hard to not use it. Opioids: (painkillers) people often become addicted as they don't last very long they can be associated with very unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when they wear off. Opiates produce a "rush" of pleasurable excitement and dampen awareness of personal problems. Prolonged use may lead to psychological problems. It can also lead to a withdrawal syndrome involving intense cravings for the drug, feelings of depression, and an inability to experience pleasure in the activities of everyday life. LSD (acid) leads to "trips" some of which may last for hours at a time. Sometimes people who have used LSD experience flashbacks or "trips" at a later date. How do opioids impact human behavior? Cocaine LSD ↑

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Classical conditioning Stimulus generalization vs stimulus discrimination Stimulus generalization: The tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. Stimulus discrimination: The tendency to differentiate among stimuli so that stimuli that are related to the original conditioned stimulus, but not identical, fail to elicit a conditioned response. Stimulus characteristics that strengthen the conditioned responses:

1. Frequency of pairings: the more times a CS is paired with the US, the stronger the CR.
2. Timing: the strongest CR occur when the CS is presented first and remains present during the presentation of the US
3. Intensity of the US: sometimes it only takes one pairing of a CS to elicit the US. People who don't like flying in airplanes, it's usually because of one incident US: A stimulus that elicits an unlearned response. UR: an unlearned response to a stimulus. NS: A stimulus that before conditioning does not produce a particular response. CR: an acquired or learned response to a conditioned stimulus. CS: A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after it has been paired with a UN.

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Escape learning: The learning of behaviors that allow an organism to escape from an aversive stimulus. Avoidance learning: The learning of behaviors that allow an organism to avoid an aversive stimulus. Insight learning: The process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs. Latent learning: The learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided. Observational learning: learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others. Spreading activation: The act of thinking of a particular concept causes a ripple effect throughout the semantic network. E =)

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Sensory memory: The storage system that holds memory of sensory impressions for a very short time. Short-term memory (STM): The memory subsystem that allows for retention and processing of newly acquired information for a maximum about 30 seconds. Long-term memory (LTM): The memory subsystem responsible for long-term storage of information. Semantic memory: memory of facts and general information about the world. Episodic memory: memory of personal experiences. Retrospective memory: memory of past experiences or events and previously acquired information. Prospective memory: memory of things one plans to do in the future. Procedural memory: memory of how to do things that require motor or performance skills. Implicit memory: memory accessed without conscious effort. Explicit memory: memory accessed through conscious effort. Decay theory: A theory of forgetting that posits that memories consist of traces laid down in the brain that gradually deteriorate and fade away over time. Interference theory: The belief that forgetting is the result of the interference of memories with each other. Retrieval theory: The belief that forgetting is the result of failure to access stored memories. Retroactive interference: The material that seemed so clear while I was in my 9 am class started to fade away once I started soaking the information of my next class. Proactive interference: I keep writing 2022 instead of 2023.

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Serial position effect: The tendency to recall items at the start or the end of a list better than items in the middle of a list. Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory of past events. Anterograde amnesia: loss or impairment of the ability to store or form new memories.

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C"A$T&' 7 Algorithm: a step-by-step set of rules for solving a problem. Heuristic: a mental shortcut for solving problems and making judgements quickly that may or may not head to a correct answer. Functional fixedness: The tendency to perceive objects as limited to the customary functions they serve. TYPES OF CREATIVITY Divergent thinking Convergent thinking Analogy (^) Conceptual Combination Conceptual Extension Multitude of different answers for a problem Seeking a single answer Combination of two things based on their similar features or properties Combination of two or more concepts into one that can result in novel ideas or applications Expanding similar concepts COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE Phonemes Morphemes^ Prefix Sufix Syntax Semantics D D D

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Intelligence testing history In 1904, school officials in Paris commissioned Binet (1857 - 1911) to develop a series of tests (basic memory and tasks similar to classroom expectations) to identify children who were unable to meet the demands of regular classroom instruction. This was the earliest form of detection for what is referred to today as "learning disorders" and "mild intellectual disability". By 1908, Binet was able to calculate "mental age" which essentially means intelligence compared to the general population at the same age. The first intelligence test calculated IQ meaning "intelligence quotient". This early test of iq was brought to the U.S., and psychologist Lewis Terman revised and adapted it into what is now called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. This was used during WWI to screen recruits. By WWII even more advanced placement exams were created and this helped create the field of industrial/organizational psychology. While the stanford-binet scales are still in use, the most popular IQ tests today are those devised by psychologist David Wechsler. The adult version is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV). It uses a deviation IQ score, which compares the test taker's score to those of same-aged peers, 100 is the norm. How do we assess the assessment?

1. Standardization: The process by which the norms are established. We look at the three qualities of a good test
2. Reliability: if you take an iq test 1 day and then you took another IQ test with similar questions (alternative forms method) a week later, the scores should be similar.
3. Validity: the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to. Predictive validity: do the results predict future behavior & performance? IQ tests are significantly correlated with school achievement, performance on other general aptitude tests, long-term health, longevity and adult job performance.

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-^ - 1 a =mental age (^) x 100 chonological (^) age

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Robert Sternberg proposed the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, identifying analytic, creative, and practical forms of intelligence. He believes that people who are more intelligent are the people who can integrate or organize these aspects of intelligence into their daily lives. Howard Gardner proposed a model of eight (later it became 9) different multiple intelligences. His argument was that there is no "g" Fluid intelligence Crystallized intelligence Ability to reason quickly and independently of our past experiences. Ability to hold attention and benefits from a strong working memory. While it can be trained it is mainly determined by our genes. Ability to apply knowledge from prior learning that was stored in our long-term memory. It increases with experience, and is mostly formed by the environment. To solve complex problems both types of intelligence need to work together.

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Nature vs. Nurture Correlation between genetics & IQ Monozygotic twins (MZ) Dizygotic twins (DZ) 100% same DNA (^) 50% same DNA Nature : MZ twins who are raised in separate households are more similar to DZ Twins raised in the same household. Nurture : MZ twins who are raised in the same households have more similar IQ scores than MZ twins who were raised in separate households. Although the exact percentage is debated, most scientists who study heritability agree that nature vs. nurture is about 50/50. However it's not just a straight forward percentage, it's an interaction. Some people are born on the genetic extremes with low or high IQ but almost all of us are somewhere in the middle. If you are born in the middle, your environment will be highly influential. Research has consistently found in recent years that more environmentally rich preschool programs, early educational interventions, and interactive reading with parents have a large correlation with IQ.

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