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The Sociological Perspective:
Understanding Society and Social
Change
Objects and Methods of Sociology
Sociology Definition
Sociology is the systematic study of human society. It is a way of critically thinking and understanding social phenomena. The main goal of sociology is to understand the world and future society.
Sociology as a Science/Social Science
Sociology is not a science in the traditional sense, as it deals with uncertain and unpredictable human behavior. However, it uses scientific methods and some aspects are difficult to predict and understand. Sociology provides names and explanations for things we already know, allowing us to critically examine social phenomena.
The Sociological Imagination
The sociological imagination, as described by C. Wright Mills, requires us to think about ourselves and our daily lives from a different perspective, analyzing them as if they are new and unfamiliar. This allows us to understand the connection between individual experiences and the broader social context.
Relevance of Time and Space
The study of society must consider the relevant time and space, as culture, values, and limitations vary across different societies and historical periods.
Examples of Sociological Inquiry
Sociologists may examine questions such as: - Why do people have children?
- Why do people use social networks? - What does it mean to be a woman or a man in contemporary Western society? - Why do people commit suicide?
Benefits of the Sociological Perspective
Provides knowledge and critical questioning about society and ourselves. Assesses the opportunities and constraints that characterize our lives. Stimulates active participation and recognition of diversity in society.
Challenges of the Sociological Perspective
Analyzing a constantly changing world. Sociologists are part of their research, with potential biases and prejudices. Reactivity in results and conclusions. Sociological language and naming of social phenomena.
The Origins of Sociology
Sociology emerged as a discipline in the 19th century, influenced by the Industrial Revolution, urbanization, and the development of modern science and political ideologies. Key thinkers include Auguste Comte, who proposed the three stages of sociological thought: theological, metaphysical, and scientific.
Sociological Paradigms
Functionalism: Society is a complex system organized like an organism, with interdependent parts working together to maintain stability and social cohesion. Conflict Theory: Focuses on tensions between dominant and disadvantaged groups, power, inequality, and social struggle. Symbolic Interactionism: Examines social interactions and connections between individuals, focusing on symbolic universes and meanings. Global Perspective: Seeks to understand society through new tools and concepts, considering factors like finance, politics, communications, culture, and the environment.
Sociological Methods
Sociologists use both quantitative and qualitative research methods to study social phenomena, including surveys, experiments, participant observation, in-depth interviews, and focus groups. Ethical considerations and triangulation of data are important aspects of sociological research.
Socialization and Culture
Culture: Deterministic and Dynamic
Culture is highly deterministic, as we do not decide on the values we hold or what is considered good or bad. The Asch and Milgram experiments demonstrate the powerful influence of culture on individual behavior. Culture is constantly evolving, sometimes slowly and other times rapidly. This cultural evolution is typically quicker and more cumulative than biological evolution.
Globalization has impacted various cultural elements, such as communication, information, science, and religion, with both symbolic and practical origins. The compression of time and space, as well as the mechanisms of disembedding and re-embedding, have influenced the relationship between rationality and tradition, as well as perceptions of risk and security.
Socialization: Acquiring Culture
Socialization is a lifetime process in which individuals construct their personal biography, assimilate social norms, and acquire cultural characteristics. The socialization process is not inherent to human beings but is a socio- cultural equipment to face the social world and its challenges. Socialization transmits knowledge, values, norms, and traditions from one generation to the next, while also allowing for cultural evolution. The debate between the "noble savage" and "social contract" perspectives highlights the positive and negative views of the socialization process. Socialization functions include the biological function of acquiring knowledge and social skills, as well as the development of personal and social identity.
Stages of Socialization
Primary socialization involves the cultural construction of societies, the formation of stable and necessary bonds, and the configuration of individual identity and community feeling. Secondary socialization extends and pluralizes knowledge about social roles, values, and norms beyond the family. Re-socialization can occur in certain institutions, allowing individuals to change their values, ideologies, and behaviors.
Agents of Socialization
The family is the principal source of socialization, defining the individual's social class, culture, and belief system. Peer groups provide a more democratic environment for the internalization of roles and values, serving as a step towards adulthood. Educational institutions involve the learning of values such as respect for authority, competitiveness, and adherence to deadlines, preparing individuals for the labor market. Media plays a significant role in transmitting values and influencing individuals, especially children, through its appealing formats and virtual socialization.
Socialization and Social Control
The "perfect socialization" is the process in which social forces shape a personality adapted to cultural norms and social needs, with no conflicts or deviations from the status quo. Socialization is a fundamental element in promoting social cohesion and exercising social control, as it shapes individual behavior and actions. Freudian theory suggests that adult actions and behaviors are determined by repressed emotions, experiences, and traumas from childhood, with the id, ego, and superego playing key roles. Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the human capacity for reflection and empathy, the development of the self, and the role of significant and generalized others in shaping individual behavior.
The Relevance of the Public Image and the
Externalization of the Society
Children's Cognitive Development
Children do not passively absorb information; they actively select and interpret what they see, hear, and feel about the world around them. The child builds a logical understanding about the physical world through different stages of cognitive development: Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years): The child is part of the environment and explores it. Pre-operational stage (2-7 years): The child is unable to use abstract notions and relies on language and symbolism. Concrete operational stage (7-11 years): The child can think about elements not present in social reality and uses logic and abstract notions. Formal operational stage (11-15 years): The child can create hypotheses and work with abstract ideas.
Group Work and the Sociological Perspective
Sociological imagination: Stepping away from daily routines to analyze a phenomenon in a new, different way. Relevance, originality, and current issues should be considered. Controversies and conflicts should be explored, and the student's own information, ideas, and data (quantitative, qualitative) should be developed. Previous knowledge about the topic should be considered. The suggested structure includes: Introduction: Presenting the idea, not a literature review. Body of work: Using primary or secondary information, with a coherent methodology and the student's own critical opinion and subjective contribution. Bibliography/references: Addressing references and plagiarism.
Reducing work time Maternity and paternity leaves Flexibility Education Services
Gender
Gender Today
Gender refers to the social and cultural behavior of men and women, which is distinct from their biological sex. Society is not always equal, even though we claim to have equal opportunities. Internal family dynamics often reflect traditional gender roles, with women typically taking care of children and men participating more in the labor market.
Gender differences can be influenced by various factors, including social change, historical and cultural variations, and universal characteristics. Gender roles and gender representation or identity are shaped by socialization processes through agents like family, school, peer groups, and media.
Gender Socialization
Gender socialization maintains the social order by shaping individuals' behavior and identity. Theories like social learning, cognitive, and psychodynamic approaches explain the different learning processes and emotional tensions that contribute to the development of gender differences.
Gender Stratification
Gender is a critical factor in structuring opportunities and life chances. Males are often more represented in higher positions in the labor market. The gender order can be analyzed in three dynamic spheres: labor, power and prestige, and social relations.
Gender Theories
Functionalist theory justifies the gender division of labor and socialization as essential for maintaining the social system. Marxist and conflict theories view women as doubly exploited, both at work and at home. Structuralist and social constructivist theories emphasize the institutionalization and internalization of male domination in society.
Feminist Theories
Feminist theories aim to address gender stratification and the mechanisms that devalue women's activities and achievements. Liberal feminism focuses on individual actions to address inequalities, while socialist and Marxist feminism seek to transform the underlying structures. Postmodern and
queer feminism challenge the idea of a unitary female identity and the existing binary gender codes.
Stratification and Classes
Social Stratification
Social stratification refers to the unequal distribution of resources, wealth, and power in a society. It is a universal but variable phenomenon that persists across generations and shapes beliefs and shared identities.
Stratification in History and the World
Stratification systems have taken various forms throughout history, such as slavery, caste systems, feudalism, and social classes in industrial societies.
Social Classes
Social classes are not defined by legal or religious provisions but by the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige. Individuals can move between social classes through social mobility, which can be horizontal, vertical, or intergenerational.
Theories of Stratification
Functionalist theory justifies social stratification and inequality as necessary for the functioning of society, emphasizing meritocracy and incentives. Marxist theory views stratification as a means of advantage for some at the expense of others, leading to conflict. Weber's multidimensional approach considers class, status, and power, while Bourdieu emphasizes the importance of cultural, social, and symbolic capital.
Poverty and Inequality
Poverty can be measured in absolute (subsistence) and relative (contextual) terms. Modernization and dependency theories offer different perspectives on the causes of poverty. In Spain, poverty and inequality are evident in personal, family, and social group contexts.
Welfare State
The Welfare State aims to improve the quality of life and reduce inequalities by providing services and benefits to meet people's basic needs. Esping- Andersen's models of the Welfare State include the social democratic, conservative-corporativist, liberal, and Mediterranean approaches.
Deviation and Cultures/Periods
Diversity of deviation processes and social control can be observed in different cultures and historical periods (e.g., alcohol, drugs, divorce, same-sex marriage). Modernization of social control involves a shift from emotion-based to rationality-based approaches.
Deviation and Socialization Processes
Deviation is associated with the socialization process, as growing diversity in values leads to deviation.
Deviation and Gender
Deviation is not a phenomenon that affects all individuals in society in the same manner.
Deviation and Ethnic Groups
Social exclusion and prejudices, based on distorted cultural images, lead to certain social groups being labeled as deviant for not following the rules.
Theories of Deviation and Crime
Classic theory: Crime is a rational and voluntary action, and punishment is normally fair. Positivist theory: There is a prototype of a criminal with identifiable biological and psychological characteristics. Conflict theory: Deviation reflects social, economic, and political inequalities, and the definition of deviation and crime depends on dominant groups. Subcultural theories: Illegitimate mediums are adopted when legitimate mediums are inaccessible for achieving societal/cultural goals. Functionalist theories: Deviation is associated with the socialization process and is essential for maintaining social equilibrium. Strain theory (Merton): Deviation is defined by the (im)possibility to obtain cultural goals with institutionalized mediums, leading to tensions/strain. Labelling theory: Deviation and conformity are defined by the responses from the social environment, not the actions of individuals, and the role of institutions in defining deviant behavior.
Social Control
Social control refers to the measures adopted to prevent, avoid, or punish crime, with the goal of maintaining social order. Positive types of social control reward conformity, while negative types involve sanctions to identify and punish norm violations.
Formal social control is officially recognized and enforced, while informal social control emerges in face-to-face interactions. The modernization of social control involves the increased relevance of the state, the professionalization and rationalization of the segregation of deviant individuals, and the shift from physical punishment to "civilized" methods like prisons.
Prisons and Alternatives
Prisons can serve the purposes of segregation, punishment, or rehabilitation, and the problematic equilibrium between re-offense and the dissuasive effect of prisons is an ongoing debate. Alternative ways to cope with deviance, such as re-socialization, are being explored, and the necessity and positivity of prisons for society is questioned.
Death Penalty
The debate around the death penalty as a form of social control is also discussed.
Crime and Deviation in a Multicultural Society
Concepts like the "glass ceiling," cultural shock, ethnocentrism, cultural relativism, and the role of prejudices and stereotypes are explored in the context of a multicultural society. Conflicts in multiculturalism, such as those related to religious and cultural practices, and the impact of globalization and the current financial and political crises on migration and ethnic tensions are discussed.
Sociological Theories of Race and Ethnicity
Conflict theories view race and ethnicity as a product of the capitalist system, leading to segregation and exploitation. Functionalist theories suggest that race and ethnicity maintain the status quo, but can also lead to dysfunctions and weaken social relationships. The labelling perspective argues that racial and ethnic classifications are the result of power and authoritarian relationships between groups. The concept of "group closure" involves the construction of social and cultural boundaries, both visible and invisible.
Social Change
Characteristics of Social Change
Social change has been observed in all different (western) cultures and societies, though at varying rates.
Modernization and Postmodernity
Modernization
Moment in time where new ideas of progress emerge, driven by individuals like Da Vinci. Modernity creates a social order based on the Enlightenment and the idea of progress. Key elements of modernity: Progress, development, and innovation. Creating one's own identity and the idea of merit and responsibility. Decline of traditional communities. Process of urbanization, leading to more plural and heterogeneous elements. Secularization and the rise of bureaucracy, efficiency, and the role of experts. Transition from a subsistence economy to one of production, distribution, and consumption. Differentiation between public and private spheres.
Postmodernity
Modernity has been radicalized, and its promises have failed. Pessimism about progress and the future, with a loss of trust in science as a solution to problems. Development of new problems, such as crises, labor issues, and environmental challenges, which old institutions cannot solve.
Technology and Social Change
From prehistoric societies to the Enlightenment, technology has driven the improvement of living conditions and the belief in progress. The Industrial Revolution and mechanization transformed society, leading to our current information and digital society. Technology is changing production, from mass to selective production, and is transforming communication, music, and photography. Technology is also changing education, with tools like PowerPoint transforming how lectures are delivered. The relationship between technology and culture is complex, with technology both shaping and being shaped by cultural appropriation.
Sociological Theories
Functionalism
Applies contributions from biology and medicine to the study of society, viewing it as a system with interdependent subsystems. Positivist approach, aiming to intervene and shape the social world. Durkheim's concepts of mechanical and organic solidarity. Parsons' systemic functionalism and the AGIL paradigm.
Structuralism
Language as a model, with structures that must be socially respected and shared. People are created by the structures in which they are born and socialized.
Marxism
Structural Marxism, with a conflictual perspective on the social system. The structure of society depends on the production system and the relations with the means of production.
Social Constructivism
Bourdieu's concept of "habitus," where practices, sensibilities, and perceptions are structured and structuring. Different forms of capital (economic, cultural, social, symbolic) shape individual and group identities.
Interpretive Sociology
Weber's acknowledgment of social structures, but emphasis on the role of individual action and interaction in creating them. Phenomenology and the social construction of reality.
The Social Construction of Reality
The Everyday Life-world and Phenomenology
People's experiences of everyday life and the (trans)formation of their reality are central to understanding and explaining social phenomena, rather than merely analyzing them. Typifications: People order the world using classifications based on their previous experiences of people, activities, institutions, and so on. There is an assumption that everyone thinks in similar ways. The "Everyday Life-world": Individuals create their reality in an intersubjective world, which is constrained by the products of their predecessors (e.g., money, bars). Phenomenology and social constructionism: Berger and Luckmann defined the cultural dimension of phenomenological sociology as "the social construction of reality." They explored the dialectic relationship between society being created by humans and humans being a social product. Key concepts: reality, language, knowledge, and common sense. Socialization (primary and secondary) and the sociology of knowledge (the process of acquiring knowledge about society).
The Risk Society
Contextualizing the risk society: We are surrounded by risk, which can be applied to many different things, including the environment. Adaptation of cultures to the environment. The meaning of "natural" nowadays: natural habits, lifestyles, and cultural constructions (medicine, clothes, food: eco and bio). Creating a natural environment where we want to live, which cannot be conceived without humans. The current relationship between human beings and the natural environment: from protection to domestication. The natural environment cannot be conceived without human societies (the artificial forest and safaris). Conflicts, dilemmas, and ethical problems: productivity, genetic modification of food, manipulation of embryos, clones, etc. Differences in social classes and inequalities. Relationship between development and the destruction of the natural environment (economic and demographic). Environmental Kuznets Curve: There is a point where societies become more concerned about the natural environment as their desires are satisfied, but this brings new problems, such as how to grow economically without destroying the planet. International inequalities: "those who throw the rubbish and those who suffer the rubbish of the others."
The Risk Society: Definitions and Characteristics
Definition of the risk society: "a systematic way of dealing with hazards and insecurities induced and introduced by modernization." Key element: Manufactured risks. Modernization produces new insecurities about our health and the things we produce to live. The risk society in images and examples: The risks do not refer to occurred damages but potential destruction and real destruction. Symbolic risks: The cultural perception and definition constitute the risks. The importance of the image and the catastrophe. The risks appear when the trust in our security ends and they disappear with the "catastrophe" (or its absence). Suspicion that those who threaten our welfare and those in charge of protecting it might be the same individuals and corporations.
Modernity and the Risk Society
Synthesis of knowledge and unawareness: Manufactured uncertainties. Reflexivity: Self-analytical society. Disappearance of scientific authority and scientific truth (e.g., global warming, wine). Intention to control everything. Science creates new risks. The development of scientific knowledge is the cause of new risks (e.g., batteries, wireless communications, genetically modified food). Solutions to defend society and culture from nature also create new risks (e.g., vaccines).
Fragmentation of the world is very present. Science is being introduced in places where it was not present before. The role of experts: Tolerable and regulated risks produce the legitimization of risks (e.g., mercury on Panga). Differences in the production, definition, and diffusion of risks. Taboos: Certain fields and risks are not studied (e.g., petrol, batteries). The world of opulence and overabundance becomes dark under the power of risks and proposes new challenges to democracy (e.g., global warming).
Postmodernity and Liquid Modernity
Postmodernity and postmodern social theory: Cultural products and social theory. Jean-François Lyotard: Incredulity in grand theories and metanarratives. The symbols and the construction of reality. Zygmunt Bauman: Liquid modernity, from postmodernity to fluid modernity. Our society is fluid and surrounded by uncertainty, despite attempts to impose modern order and stability. Frederic Jameson: The cultural logic of late capitalism. The transformation of culture with a similar structure. Postmodernity and its cultural products are characterized by superficiality, lack of depth, fading of emotions, and loss of historicity (pastiche). Jean Baudrillard: Media (values and ideas) and their representations. Simulacra and simulation. The border between reality and their representations, signs and referents, has collapsed (e.g., Princess Diana, the Gulf War, 9/11). Hyperreality: Constructed or simulated reality, using images, consequently not grounded in reality (e.g., Disneyland, Parque Europa).
The Sociological Imagination and the
Transformation of Society
The Sociological Imagination
The sociological imagination is the ability to perceive the society to which one is attached. This involves overcoming:
Prejudices Familiarity Empathy
Familiarity and empathy are used to approximate the object of study, while overcoming ethnocentrism and embracing cultural relativism.
The Transformation of Society
Society is constantly undergoing transformation, particularly in the bonds among individuals. There has been a shift from traditional to modern to postmodern societies.
