Labeling theory in Criminology | Lecture notes Criminology

Labeling theory 
Labeling theory, in criminology, a theory stemming out of a sociological 
perspective known as “symbolic interactionism,” a school of thought 
based on the ideas of George Herbert Mead, John Dewey, W. I. Thomas, 
Charles Horton Cooley, and Herbert Blumer, among others. The first as 
well as one of the most prominent labeling theorists was Howard Becker, 
who published his groundbreaking work Outsiders in 1963. A question 
became popular with criminologists during the mid-1960s: What makes 
some acts and some people deviant or criminal? During this time, 
scholars tried to shift the focus of criminology toward the effects of 
individuals in power responding to behavior in society in a negative way; 
they became known as “labeling theorists” or “social reaction theorists.” 
In 1969 Blumer emphasized the way that meaning arises in social 
interaction through communication, using language and symbols. The 
focus of this perspective is the interaction between individuals in society, 
which is the basis for meanings within that society. These theorists 
suggested that powerful individuals and the state create crime by labeling 
some behaviors as inappropriate. The focus of these theorists is on the 
reactions of members in society to crime and deviance, a focus that 
separated them from other scholars of the time. These theorists shaped 
their argument around the notion that, even though some criminological 
efforts to reduce crime are meant to help the offender (such as 
rehabilitation efforts), they may move offenders closer to lives of crime 
because of the label they assign the individuals engaging in the behavior. 
As members in society begin to treat these individuals on the basis of 
their labels, the individual begins to accept this label him- or herself. In 
other words, an individual engages in a behavior that is deemed by others 
as inappropriate, others label that person to be deviant, and eventually the 
individual internalizes and accepts this label. This notion of social 
reaction, reaction or response by others to the behavior or individual, is 
central to labeling theory. Critical to this theory is the understanding that 
the negative reaction of others to a particular behavior is what causes that 
behavior to be labeled as “criminal” or “deviant.” Furthermore, it is the 
negative reaction of others to an individual engaged in a particular 
behavior that causes that individual to be labeled as “criminal,” “deviant,” 
or “not normal.” According to the literature, several reactions to deviance 
have been identified, including collective rule making, organizational 
processing, and interpersonal reaction. 

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Labeling theory

Labeling theory , in criminology, a theory stemming out of a sociological perspective known as “symbolic interactionism,” a school of thought based on the ideas of George Herbert Mead, John Dewey, W. I. Thomas, Charles Horton Cooley, and Herbert Blumer, among others. The first as well as one of the most prominent labeling theorists was Howard Becker, who published his groundbreaking work Outsiders in 1963. A question became popular with criminologists during the mid-1960s: What makes some acts and some people deviant or criminal? During this time, scholars tried to shift the focus of criminology toward the effects of individuals in power responding to behavior in society in a negative way; they became known as “labeling theorists” or “social reaction theorists.” In 1969 Blumer emphasized the way that meaning arises in social interaction through communication, using language and symbols. The focus of this perspective is the interaction between individuals in society, which is the basis for meanings within that society. These theorists suggested that powerful individuals and the state create crime by labeling some behaviors as inappropriate. The focus of these theorists is on the reactions of members in society to crime and deviance, a focus that separated them from other scholars of the time. These theorists shaped their argument around the notion that, even though some criminological efforts to reduce crime are meant to help the offender (such as rehabilitation efforts), they may move offenders closer to lives of crime because of the label they assign the individuals engaging in the behavior. As members in society begin to treat these individuals on the basis of their labels, the individual begins to accept this label him- or herself. In other words, an individual engages in a behavior that is deemed by others as inappropriate, others label that person to be deviant, and eventually the individual internalizes and accepts this label. This notion of social reaction, reaction or response by others to the behavior or individual, is central to labeling theory. Critical to this theory is the understanding that the negative reaction of others to a particular behavior is what causes that behavior to be labeled as “criminal” or “deviant.” Furthermore, it is the negative reaction of others to an individual engaged in a particular behavior that causes that individual to be labeled as “criminal,” “deviant,” or “not normal.” According to the literature, several reactions to deviance have been identified, including collective rule making, organizational processing, and interpersonal reaction.

Becker defined deviance as a social creation in which “social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labeling them as outsiders.” Becker grouped behavior into four categories: falsely accused, conforming, pure deviant, and secret deviant. Falsely accused represents those individuals who have engaged in obedient behavior but have been perceived as deviant; therefore, they would be falsely labeled as deviant. Conforming represents those individuals who have engaged in obedient behavior that has been viewed as obedient behavior (not been perceived as deviant). Pure deviant represents those individuals who have engaged in rule breaking or deviant behavior that has been recognized as such; therefore, they would be labeled as deviant by society. Secret deviant represents those individuals that have engaged in rule breaking or deviant behavior but have not been perceived as deviant by society; therefore, they have not been labeled as deviant. According to sociologists like Emile Durkheim, George Herbert Mead, and Kai T. Erikson, deviance is functional to society and keeps stability by defining boundaries. In 1966, Erikson expanded labeling theory to include the functions of deviance, illustrating how societal reactions to deviance stigmatize the offender and separate him or her from the rest of society. The results of this stigmatization is a self-fulfilling prophecy in which the offender comes to view him- or herself in the same ways society does. Key concepts: primary and secondary deviance Primary deviance refers to initial acts of deviance by an individual that have only minor consequences for that individual’s status or relationships in society. The notion behind this concept is that the majority of people violate laws or commit deviant acts in their lifetime; however, these acts are not serious enough and do not result in the individual being classified as a criminal by society or by themselves, as it is viewed as “normal” to engage in these types of behaviors. Speeding would be a good example of an act that is technically criminal but does not result in labeling as such. Furthermore, many would view recreational marijuana use as another example.

will be shamed by society for that act and then reaccepted back into society without a permanent label of “not normal,” “deviant,” or “criminal.” Furthermore, a second concept of this theory is the notion of restorative justice, or making amends for wrong actions with those who were affected by the behavior. The argument driving this theory is the notion that reintegrative shaming demonstrates that a behavior is wrong without hurting the individual accused of that behavior. Rather, society encourages the individual to make up for what he or she has done, show remorse for the choice of behavior, and learn from the mistake. Under this theory, society teaches its members and then readily accepts them back into the group without permanent labels or stigmas attached. Essentially, society forgives. Matsueda and Heimer’s differential social control theory Matsueda and Heimer’s theory, introduced in 1992, returns to a symbolic interactionist perspective, arguing that a symbolic interactionist theory of delinquency provides a theory of self- and social control that explains all components, including labeling, secondary deviance, and primary deviance. This theory relies on the concept of role taking, a concept that illustrates how individuals reflect on their behavior, how they are able to put themselves in the shoes of others in order to view the situation or behavior from the other’s standpoint, and how they evaluate alternative actions that would be more acceptable and not seem as inappropriate in the eyes of others. Heimer and Matsueda expanded this notion to include the term differential social control, which emphasizes that social control through role taking can take a conventional direction or a criminal direction because the acceptable courses of actions by peers may not necessarily be conventional or nondeviant courses of action. Criticisms of labeling theory There are many criticisms that have been raised about traditional labeling theory. Labeling theory prospered throughout the 1960s, bringing about policy changes such as deinstitutionalization of the mentally ill and juvenile diversion programs. However, it came under attack in the mid-1970s as a result of criticism by conflict theorists and positivists for ignoring the concept of deviance; these theorists believed that deviance does exist and that secondary deviance was a useless concept for sociologists. This criticism has survived and continues to haunt labeling theorists because of the recent empirical evidence on the theory. Two

main hypotheses have been identified through these empirical tests, including the status characteristics hypothesis and the secondary deviance hypothesis. The status characteristics hypothesis explains how individual attributes affect the choice of who is and who is not labeled, and the secondary deviance hypothesis argues that negative labels cause future deviance. Labeling theory predicts that labeling will vary by status characteristics even when controlling for previous deviant behavior. The criticism, however, stems from the fact that labeling theory does not require that status characteristics are the most important determinant of labeling. Secondary deviance implies a long, causal chain of events, including negative labels, objective and perceived opportunities, and deviant self-images. It is important to keep in mind, however, that some groups may be more vulnerable than others to these events. The literature in this area has not provided support for or contradicted labeling theory, as it simply focuses on future deviance without thoroughly examining the process. Most research conducted on labeling theory appears to simply take for granted that this process is a given; however, it is problematic to assume it as such without proper empirical support. This is a key point that ties this theory back into literature on race and crime; some individuals are more vulnerable to the label and therefore more susceptible to the problems that occur as a result of being stigmatized.

Labeling theory in Criminology, Lecture notes of Criminology

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Labeling theory