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LC99 CHILD AND YOUTH PSYCHOLOGY EXAM
2025 - 2026 ACTUAL QUESTIONS AND CORRECT
ANSWERS GRADED A+ LIVERPOOL HOPE
UNIVERSITY
Define child development
the scientific study of processes of change and stability in human children
Define social construction
concept or practice that is an invention of a particular culture or society
Developmental scientists study three broad domains, or areas, of the self:
physical, cognitive, and psychosocial
physical development
growth of body and brain, including biological and physiological patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health
cognitive development
pattern of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity
psychosocial development
pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationship
individual differences
differences among children in characteristics, influences, or developmental outcomes.
Five Periods of Child Development:
- Prenatal Period (conception to birth)
- Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth to age 3)
- Early Child (ages 3 to 6)
- Middle Childhood (ages 6 to 11)
- Adolescence (ages 11 to about 20)
ethnic group
a group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, or national origin that contributes to a sense of shared identity.
socioeconomic status (SES)
combination of economic and social factors, that describe an individual or family, including income, education, and occupation.
poverty
______ is stressful and can damage children and families' physical, cognitive, and psychosocial well-being.
risk factors
conditions that increase the likelihood of a negative developmental outcome.
time; place
Certain experiences, tied to ___ and ___, affect the course of people's lives.
normative
characteristic of an event that occurs in a similar way for most people in a group; e.g. puberty, menopause
nonnormative
characteristic of an unusual event that happens to a particular person or a typical event that happens at an unusual time of life; e.g. death of a parent when child is young or surviving a plane crash
historical generation
a group of people strongly influenced by a major historical event during their formative period; e.g. Great Depression, WWII
cohort
a group of people born at about the same time; e.g. baby boomers, millenials
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imprinting
totality of nonhereditary, or experiental, influences on development; nurture; world outside the self.
passive development
people are like machines that react to environmental input; development is reactive and externally driven.
active development
children are growing organisms that set their own development in motion; they just don't react; they initiate events. Driving force for change is internal.
continuous development
development is gradual and incremental.
discontinuous development
development is abrupt or uneven.
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quantitative change
change in number or amount, such as in height, weight, or size of vocabulary; continuous change
qualitative change
change in kind, structure, or organization, such as the change from nonverbal to verbal communication; discontinuous. Development occurs in a series of distinct stages, like stair steps.
qualitative change
All stage theories, like Freud's or Piaget's imply this:
Agreement on points of child development
- All domains of development are interrelated- Physical, cognitive, and psychosocial domains affects others in complex interactions.
- Normal development includes a wide range of individual differences.
- Influences are bidirectional- Children affect the environment around them as much as the environment shapes them.
- Historical and cultural contexts strongly influence development- child develops within a specific environment bounded by time and place.
- Early experience is important, but children can be remarkably resilient.
- Development in childhood affects development throughout the life span.
contextual perspective
Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory is an example of this perspective.
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evolutionary/sociobiological perspective
Bowlby's attachment theory is an example of this.
Freud's psychosexual theory
behavior is controlled by powerful unconscious urges
Erikson's psychosocial theory
personality is influenced by society and develops through a series of crises
Pavlov, Skinner, and Watson behaviorism or traditional learning theory
people are responders; the environment controls behavior (three people)
Bandura social learning (social cognitive) theory
children learn in a social context by observing and imitating models; children are active contributors to learning.
Piaget's cognitive-stage theory
qualitative changes in thought occur between infancy and adolescence; children are active contributors to learning
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory
social interaction is central to cognitive development.
Information-processing theory
human beings are processors of symbols
Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory
development occurs through interaction between a developing person and five surrounding, interlocking contextual systems of influences, from microsystem to chronosystem.
- Oral (birth to 12-18 months)- sucking and feeding
- Anal (12-18 months to 3 years)- potty-training
- Phallic (3 to 6 years).- Oedipus, Electra, same-sex identification.
- Latency (6 years to puberty)- time of relative calm
- Genital (puberty through adulthood)- reemergence of sexual impulses of phallic stage, channeled into mature adult sexuality.
psychosocial stages (Erikson)
- Basic trust vs. mistruct (birth to 12-18 months); hope
- Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (12-18 months to 3 years); will.
- Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years)-; purpose
- Industry vs. inferiority (6 years to puberty); skill
- Identity vs idnentity confusion (puberty to young adulthood); fidelity
- Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood); love
- Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood); care
- Integrity vs despair (late adulthood); wisdom
cognitive stages (Piaget)
- Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years)
- Preoperational (2 to 7 years)
- Concrete operations (7 to 11 years)
- Formal operations (11 years through adulthood)
classical conditioning
learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a particular response with another stimulus that does elicit the response.
operant conditioning
learning based on association of behavior with its consequences
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, a process that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated
punishment
in operant conditioning, a process that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated
reciprocal determinism
Bandura's term for bidirectional forces that affect development
adaptation
Piaget's term for adjustment to new information about the environment
assimilation
Piaget's term for incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure
accomodation
Piaget's term for changes in a cognitive structure to include new information
equilibration
Piaget's term for the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements, achieved through a balance between assimilation and accommodation
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Vygotsky's term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help.
information-processing approach
approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information.
contextual perspective
view of child development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context
bioecological theory
Bronfenbrenner's approach to understanding processes and contexts of child development that identifies five levels of environmental influence: microsystem, mesosytem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
evolutionary/sociobiological perspective
view of human development that focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of social behavior
ethology
study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the species.
in-depth study of a culture, which uses a variety of methods including participant observation
participant observation
research method in which the observer lives with the people or participates in the activity being observed.
correlational study
research design intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists
experimental group
in an experiment, the group receiving the treatment under study
control group
in an experiment, a comparison group of people similar to those in the experimental group who do not receive the treatment under study
independent variable
in an experiment, the condition over which the experimenter has direct control
dependent variable
in an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable
cross-sectional study
study designed to assess age-related differences, in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion
longitudinal study
study designed to assess changes in a sample over time
sequential study
study design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal designs
ethics of research
right to informed consent, avoidance of deception, right to privacy and confidentiality
