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The Assistant Principal Leadership Knowledge and Skills
Leadership Knowledge and Skills:
The Essentials for Effectiveness
In This Chapter
What is leadership? The survey responses of 100 practicing assistant princi- pals indicate that most accepted the position with only a general knowledge of leadership theory and a rudimentary understanding of the traits of effective lead- ers. What these assistant principals believe they lacked when they entered the ranks of administrators is an ability to apply theory to practice and to use posi- tional authority “to get things done.” This chapter summarizes the research on effective leadership and the knowl- edge and skills essential to persuading and influencing subordinates to be effective in performing their tasks. Included is an exploration of the practical applications of theories of leadership and sources of power.
The Nature of Leadership
Leadership is an enigma. Researchers have studied it, philosophers have engaged in long discussions and written treatises about it, and practitioners have tried mightily to target exactly what is meant when we use the term leadership. These various perspectives on leadership have led us to examine variables such as the concept and use of power, traits of effective leaders, environmental and per- sonal contingencies, leadership styles, and leadership theories and models. Yet in the 3,000+ empirical articles on the topic and the 350 definitions provided by a variety of experts (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 1996), no conclusive findings exist as to what constitutes effective leadership.
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Historically, definitions of leadership focused on behaviors of leaders. For ex- ample, in Plutarch’s Parallel Lives, written in the first century of the current era, the behaviors, conduct, and values of famous ancient Romans and Greeks were de- scribed, and during this time, their behaviors were emulated as part of leadership training (Bonner, 1977). In the 16th century, Machiavelli’s The Prince provided Lorenzo de Medici with political prescriptions on how to be a successful leader in an Italian city-state, and in the 20th century, James MacGregor Burns’s Leadership (1978) examined the dynamics of the leader-follower relationship in the context of conflict and power. Traits of leaders have been studied to identify the work and personal charac- teristics of leaders and the skill traits associated with leader effectiveness. Work traits include persistence, willingness to assume responsibility, decisiveness, de- pendability, and tolerance of stress; personality traits include dominance, decisive- ness, cooperation, self-confidence, and energy; and skill traits include intelligence, creativity, diplomacy, persuasiveness, and organizational ability. Historical theorists, such as Thomas Carlyle, have described the “Great Man” theory of leadership, which states that leaders are born, not made. Karl Marx and Georg Hegel maintained that leaders are a product of the social and economic forces of their time. Gardner (1990), combining these views of leadership, states that both historical and environmental forces create conditions that allow leaders to emerge. Gardner’s example is the charismatic Martin Luther, who emerged in the early beginnings of the social and political upheaval of the Reformation, and whose 95 theses nailed to a church door made him a historical force. In this historical and research-based context, definitions of leadership abound. However varied these definitions may be, what is clear and undisputed is that leaders have loyal and committed followers and that leaders do not exist in isolation. Leaders, as we argue elsewhere (Weller & Weller, 2000), are products of their times, their environments, their offices, their followers, their values, their personality traits, and their conceptualizations of leadership. Leaders are prime movers who allow others to achieve common goals and who unite others for a common purpose. They command yet they serve their followers. They allow their followers choices but provide direction on how ends should be achieved. What is it then that these definitions and insights can provide the assistant principal? First, they suggest that one definition of leadership is as valid as an- other. There is no right or wrong answer to the question, “What is leadership?” Second, these definitions reflect fads, wishes, academic trends, political influ- ences, and reality as known to those who have attempted to define the term. Third, existing definitions “provide a sliver of insight with each remaining an in- complete and wholly inadequate explanation” (Bennis & Nanus, 1985, p. 4) of the phenomenon called leadership.
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The Manager-Versus-Leader Debate
The manager-versus-leader debate is an ongoing discussion about which of the two roles effective leaders play. The terms leader and manager tend to be used interchangeably, but major differences exist. Managers, in general, are “nuts and bolts” oriented whereas leaders are visionaries, conceptualizers, and catalysts. Those who excel as leaders may excel as managers, but those who excel as manag- ers infrequently excel as leaders. The best schools can hope for is having compe- tent leaders and managers in the administrative ranks. Leaders plan, delegate, coordinate, and motivate. They focus on developing human potential and on influencing and persuading others to accomplish organi- zational goals. Leaders seek to “bond” with subordinates and to align the goals of subordinates with those of the organization. Authority vested in leaders through the organization’s line staff chart is used only as a last resort when influence and persuasion fail. The ability to influence and persuade others is a primary characteristic of leaders that sets them apart from managers, who achieve results by directing the work of others. Leaders inspire and motivate others to action. Leaders rely more on their cognitive and human relations skills to attain their objectives than on their authority to tell others what to do. Leaders have “mature wisdom,” accord- ing to Gardner (1990), which allows them to provide clear direction and purpose to their followers; know the needs, concerns, and expectations of their followers; and develop a “social compact” with their followers. When social compacts are formed, followers willingly entrust their future welfare to the leader, who in turn willingly entrusts the welfare of the organization to the followers. In schools, principals often assume the role of leader, whereas assistant prin- cipals—due to the types of job responsibilities generally delegated by the principal, such as discipline and student supervision—are more often viewed as managers. One of the purposes of this book is to help those in the assistant principalship
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On Leaders and Leadership (continued)
The genius of a good leader is to leave behind him a situation which common sense, without the grace of genius, can deal with successfully. Walter Lippman
I sit here all day trying to persuade people to do the things they ought to have sense enough to do without my persuading them. Harry S. Truman
acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to transition to the leadership role of the principalship. Even if the principalship is not the assistant principal’s ultimate goal, leadership knowledge and skills can give the assistant principal the edge that is needed to move to other leadership positions. If the assistant principalship is the goal, the application of such knowledge and skills while aspiring to or hold- ing the position of assistant principal can elevate the person, and whatever posi- tion the person holds, to a much higher plateau in the organization. In other words, a person does not have to be in a leadership position to be a leader, as will be discussed in other sections throughout this book. Such a person should not be surprised, however, when he or she is approached and recruited by those in formal leadership positions. A more accurate way of placing the manager-versus- leader debate in perspective, then, is to understand that a leader can have mana- gerial responsibilities—in other words, a person doesn’t have to be one or the other. Rather, it may help to distinguish between leaders and nonleaders. Some factors help differentiate leaders from nonleaders. Newstrom and Davis (1997) found that a high level of personal drive, the desire to lead, personal integrity, self-confidence, flexibility, analytical ability, creativity, and personal warmth are the attributes of leaders in the most current research findings. Caution should be taken, because these leadership characteristics do not guarantee success- ful leadership. They can best be viewed as competencies to be developed. It seems clear that leadership is more personally demanding than managership because leadership requires a voluntary commitment to promote one’s goals through influence and persuasion; to be fair, trustworthy, and honest; and to use authority and power wisely and sparingly. Leaders who are successful and who do rely on their power and authority to accomplish their goals are stu- dents of power. That is, they study the various power sources, presented in the next section, and then use these sources when situations exist that require the exercise of power and authority.
Sources of Formal and Informal Power
Power in organizations can be accrued and used by individuals and groups. Leaders have power to influence the behavior of others both through their per- sonal attributes and as legitimate representatives of the organization. Formal power is defined as that power that is legally vested in a position and sanctioned by the organization; informal power stems from personal attributes, outside of formal power, that attract allegiance and support from peers. French and Raven (1968), who pioneered the analysis of power in organizations, identified five major sources of power leaders use to influence the behavior of individuals:
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leaders who use the threat of coercive power and then reward teachers for perfor- mance produce a positive effect on work commitment. We have found (Weller, 1999; Weller & Weller, 2000) that principals and assistant principals who are au- thoritarian and who use coercive power or legitimate power as a means to control teachers end up reducing teacher loyalty and work performance and lowering morale.
Using Too Much or Too Little Power: Is There a Balance?
Lord Acton’s famous statement “Power corrupts and absolute power cor- rupts absolutely” certainly seems to be an accurate assessment of the way power influences many people. But some power is needed to promote effective and effi- cient organizational outcomes. The question is, how much power should one use? For leaders, the answer depends on their personal attributes and their knowledge and skill levels. Most research agrees that a balance in the application of the power sources (excluding coercive power) is best. Following are some guidelines that can help a leader find that balance. Less legitimate power is needed when leaders personally know the needs, dispositions, and aspirations of their followers and can apply other power sources. The key to applying legitimate power is to maintain favorable relation- ships so followers retain respect and goodwill toward the leader. When other sources of power such as expert, reward, and referent are lacking, however, the greater exercise of legitimate power is a better alternative than coercive power. On the other hand, too little use of legitimate power may be perceived as weakness and can result in poor outcomes, confusion, and frustration, leading to chaos among subordinates. Coercive power, always an option, is discouraged due to its numerous negative effects. Using coercive power is appropriate, states Yukl (1994), when discipline is required to deter behavior detrimental to other individuals or the organization. For example, when leaders must thwart potential rebellion or deal with people who refuse to obey directives, coercive power is appropriate. But the excessive use of coercive power diminishes the effectiveness of informal authority and referent power, and leads to hostility, alienation, and covert action. Coercive power is most effective when subordinates have a clear understanding of the rules and policies of the organization and when coercive power is administered swiftly, fairly, and consistently. The need for coercive power can be reduced when requests, not or- ders, are given to obey directives; when the requests are clearly stated; and when reasons for the requests are provided. Relying on rewards as a source of power defines the leader-follower relation- ship in purely economic terms and may make subordinates feel manipulated. Regardless of the value placed on them by leaders, rewards may result in low
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subordinate compliance if they are not personally valued or deemed sufficient for the task. Likewise, depending on too much expert power may breed contempt for the leader or create a feeling of “nonworth” among subordinates. Subordinates may feel intimidated and refrain from expressing their views or ideas to one in authority. Leaders who depend on referent power to influence subordinates’ be- havior have the loyalty and trust of their subordinates, and they lead by example. Not all subordinates, however, will have equal trust in and loyalty to the leader, and some subordinates may find little or no personal affiliation or appeal in the leader’s personal characteristics. In the final analysis, any source of power used by assistant principals will meet with varying degrees of resistance by teachers. To maximize task commit- ment, the use of referent and expert power is preferred over legitimate power. To attain teacher compliance, legitimate and reward power are preferred. Use of coercive power ensures compliance, but results in many negative side effects. Therefore, to maintain informal power, a leader should apply legitimate power judiciously, pick fights carefully, act politically, pay off past obligations, and back down on issues that do not impact the leader or the organization negatively.
Practical Sources of Power for Assistant Principals
Assistant principals can and do use all five sources of power in several contexts. First, assistant principals schedule teaching and class assignments. Some teachers prefer to teach only one subject per semester or year. Others thrive on diversification. Some teachers prefer to teach slower learners whereas others prefer advanced placement or honors students. Assigning teachers to certain courses and ability levels may involve the use of reward and coercive power when rewards are given for performance and compliance and when the threat of not granting requested assignments is used as coercion. Second, many assistant principals have budgeting power and can reward department heads and teachers with the acquisition of requested materials or with the permission and funds to attend professional conferences. Making certain teachers’ requests a low priority can be viewed as exercising legitimate or coercive power, depending on the assistant principal’s rationale. Third, the process of evaluating classroom performance, perhaps the most important instructional task of the assistant principal, can be stressful for many teachers. Professionally and ethically, fair and objective assessments should be made. But the evaluation process is one in which reward, coercive, legitimate, and expert power can be used. Rewarding compliance in areas outside of teaching by providing positive evaluations should not be practiced. Likewise, using class- room evaluations as a means to exact conformity or gain favors is a form of coer- cive power that should be avoided. By using both legitimate and expert power in
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know followers’ needs, goals, and aspirations, and then to carefully consider these personal variables when making decisions. It is this personal knowledge that al- lows leaders to influence or persuade their followers to do their bidding.
Influence
According to Yukl (1994), “Influence is the essence of leadership” (p. 223). There are many different forms of influence. Influence can come as a simple request, which is successful when the task is part of the follower’s assigned duties and within the follower’s capabilities. Another form of influence is the legitimized request. Here the request is based on precedent or policy; although the follower is influenced to follow through on the legitimized request, task commitment is low. An inspirational appeal results in high task commitment and arouses enthusiasm by linking the follower’s needs, values, or aspirations to the request. Consultation, another form of influence, includes the follower in the decision- making process. Yukl (1994) relates that “this process illustrates the apparent paradox that you can gain more influence by giving up some influence” (p. 226). Here task commitment is high. Exchange involves the explicit or implicit offer of a reward for completing a task. This form of influence is most beneficial when the follower is indifferent or reluctant about completing a task. Task commitment is moderate. Personal appeal is a form of influence whereby a leader resorts to friend- ship or loyalty in getting another to accomplish a task. The stronger the relation- ship, the greater the probability this form of influence will work. We call this blue chipping, that is, calling in past personal favors; a leader can ask for only so many blue chips before the other begins to sense manipulation. Here task commitment is moderate. Ingratiation is a form of influence whereby the leader gains favor with the sub- ordinate through deliberate efforts to do so. Yukl and Tracy (1992) warn that such tactics can be viewed as manipulation, but when the comments and actions are sincere and merited, ingratiation can be effective. Task commitment is moderate. Pressure includes warnings and close supervision of the subordinate’s work. Pres- sure may be initially effective with those who are lazy or indifferent, but, in gen- eral, pressure should be used only as a last resort. Task commitment is low. In addition, pressure undermines working relationships and may lead to covert behavior. Coalition as a form of influence involves several people acting together to trigger the compliance of another. Task commitment is low. Applying these different forms of influence allows leaders to “energize” others without using legitimate authority. Using influence is more likely to be successful when a follower believes that the request is intrinsically desirable, that
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it is the correct or proper thing to do, and that it coincides with the follower’s value system.
Persuasion
Persuasion is defined as a leader’s ability to change behavior, initiate action, and gain consensus through facts and logic, or through the discrediting of facts and logic. Successful persuasion depends on the degree of trust and respect the parties have for one another, and on the way in which the persuasive appeal is presented. Nonthreatening appeals promote interest and openness, and followers are more likely to be swayed by them (Weller, 1999). When leaders apply rational persuasion, they use an effective and powerful skill to change another’s behavior. Rational persuasion is most effective when the appeal is carefully made to another by using facts and logical reasoning to point out the direct benefits to the follower of the requested behavior. The degree of re- spect the follower has for the leader, the amount of credibility the leader has with the follower, and the degree to which emotional influences can be suppressed by the follower, is the degree to which rational persuasion is effective. Generally, ra- tional persuasion is moderately successful in changing behavior, especially when compliance rather than commitment is sought. When rational persuasion is used in conjunction with some form of influence, it becomes a highly effective leader- ship skill (Yukl, 1994).
Roles and Responsibilities of
Assistant Principals: Survey Results
To find out what assistant principals do in their jobs and how they feel on a variety of topics, we surveyed 100 assistant principals from urban, suburban, and rural schools and found, in general agreement with the existing literature, that the primary responsibilities for assistant principals continue to be discipline and attendance counting. Approximately 77% of the respondents identified discipline and attendance as their major job assignments, whereas 13% indicated discipline or attendance were secondary to their primary responsibilities of improving instruction or overseeing the vocational education program. Schools with more than one assistant principal generally had one assistant principal primarily re- sponsible for curriculum, instruction, or vocational education, and one assistant principal primarily responsible for student discipline and attendance.
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My primary job is student discipline, but I’m asked to help teachers im- prove, place student teachers, develop the master schedule, strengthen the curriculum, attend meetings for the principal, work on the budget, evaluate personnel, and complete reports. Sometimes I’m flying by the seat of my pants and my day starts at 6:30 a.m. and ends at 7:00 p.m.
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Comments by Assistant Principals on the Variety of Roles They Play
“An assistant principal is essentially a ‘jack-of-all trades and master of none.’”
“I’ve thought about trying to write down every thing I do in a day’s time as I do it, but I can’t justify the time loss. Let’s just say I stay very busy.”
“I wish that I could spend more time with students other than those in trouble. That’s why I went into the educational field to begin with, and I really miss that interaction.”
“At the end of some days, I feel like I’ve been pecked to death by ducks. Some- body is always in my face wanting something.”
“I see the variety of tasks I’m asked to perform as a way of getting to know the total school program. I want to be a principal and I want to be exposed to as much as I can in my role as an assistant.”
“I like the job because I never know what will come up in a day’s time. I never get bored.”
SOURCE: 2000 Survey of 100 Practicing Assistant Principals From Rural, Suburban, and Urban Schools
Areas in Which Educational Leadership Courses Did Not Adequately Prepare Assistant Principals
- Motivating teachers
- Resolving conflict
- Developing curriculum for the “real world”
- Working effectively with teams
- Improving instruction
- Dealing with the “politics” of the job
SOURCE: 2000 Survey of 100 Practicing Assistant Principals From Rural, Suburban, and Urban Schools
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Table 1.1 Job Description for Assistant Principal
Callaway City School System Job Description Assistant Principal
Qualifications:
Primary Duties and Responsibilities:
Secondary Duties and Responsibilities:
- Master’s Degree
- Valid Leadership Certificate
- Minimum of three years successful classroom teaching experience
- Alternatives to the above qualifications deemed appropriate by the Board of Education
- Assist in all matters assigned by the principal
- Be responsible for student discipline and campus supervision
- Supervise student and staff attendance
- Supervise the In-School Suspension program and serve as hearing officer
- Assist with teacher observations and evaluations
- Assist with school staff meetings
- Coordinate public information for the school
- Contribute to school improvement plans
- Assist with planning staff development programs
- Develop teacher and student handbook
- Coordinate field trips
- Evaluate department heads and clerical staff
- Counsel with parents, students, and staff when necessary
- Assist in developing the master schedule
- Supervise extracurricular activities and athletic events
- Assist in the selection of instructional materials
- (^) Assist in evaluating all school programs when necessary
- Supervise lunchroom and transportation programs
- Assist in supervising school physical facilities
Developing Leadership Competencies
How can one best develop leadership competencies? Certain aspects of lead- ership can be acquired by participating in training, observing role models, engag- ing in work experience, reading research and theory, and practicing self-leadership. Manz (1991) found that practicing self-leadership provides a testing ground for learning and developing leadership competencies. That is, one must first want to be a leader and then make a conscious effort to change one’s current behavior patterns. Second, one must make a personal commitment to perform leadership tasks daily and with the knowledge that official rewards or incentives will not be forthcoming. Third, one must create “mental activities” for practicing leader behaviors by planning leadership activities in advance, rehearsing leadership activities through “mental imagery,” building in “natural” rewards for success, and then practicing self-criticism and reflection on task completion. Observing effective leaders is an excellent way to develop leadership compe- tencies. Following or “shadowing” respected leaders over time allows one to wit- ness firsthand how leaders apply their skills in various situations. Allowing time for after-the-fact reflection and discussion is important. Apprenticeship or admin- istrative assistantship is still another way to develop leadership competencies. Here leaders identify and then place potential leaders in positions as apprentices or administrative assistants. Leaders guide and model while the apprentice actu- ally performs leadership tasks and gains practical experience. In this role, leaders encourage, inspire, tutor, and mold their charges into future leaders. Reading theory and research-oriented journals is a time-honored way to gain knowledge about leadership. Less appealing to most practitioner-oriented students of leadership, theories and research provide the essential foundation on which good practice is derived. Those ignorant of theory and research are akin to those who are ignorant of history: doomed to repeat the mistakes of their predecessors.
Leadership Theories: Building a
Theoretical Base for Practical Applications
The leadership theories discussed here are not meant to be exhaustive, but do represent those that have had a major impact on the thinking and behavior of others. The selected theories presented below are grouped according to their associated characteristics and intended to serve as references for leadership preparation.
Behavioral Theories. Behavioral theories investigate what effective leaders do or how effective leaders behave. Behavioral theories seek to identify which behav- ior patterns make leaders more effective. Three common descriptions of leader be- haviors are autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire. The autocrat expects compliance
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without questions and uses threats and punishments to achieve goals; decision making and power are centralized. Democratic leaders delegate authority and share power; teams are an integral part of the decision-making process and orga- nizational goals and objectives are jointly developed. Laissez-faire leaders grant complete freedom of action to subordinates. They see their primary role as provid- ing resources and moral support. Another behavioral theory is the two-dimensional theory of initiating struc- ture and consideration for subordinates. Researchers sought to identify leadership behavior “patterns” that yielded effective performance. Leaders who emphasized
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Table 1.2 Job Description for Assistant Principal of Instruction and Curriculum
Lamar County School System Job Description Assistant Principal of Instruction and Curriculum
Duties and Responsibilities
- Develop the master schedule.
- Evaluate teachers and department heads.
- Coordinate staff development programs.
- Coordinate peer coaching and mentoring programs.
- Coordinate the placement of student teachers.
- Evaluate student test scores and improve instruction and the curriculum as needed.
- Assist the principal in conducting meetings of the School Governance Council.
- Coordinate the Parent Teacher Association program.
- Coordinate the business partnership programs.
- Assist in maintaining a school culture emphasizing academics, student achievement, and teaching excellence.
- Keep current on the recent research on improving instruction, student learning, and curriculum trends which promote student achievement.
- Perform all other duties assigned by the principal.
Supervisor: Principal of the school Terms of Employment: Eleven-month contract with salary based on highest degree and years of teaching experience Evaluation: The principal will evaluate job performance based on the job description and any other duties he/she assigns.
which the task is understood by the follower; and (c) the extent to which the leader possesses the ability to influence the follower through legitimate, reward, and co- ercive powers. Effective leadership results when the “right mix” occurs among these multiple variables. Hersey and Blanchard (1988) relate that effective leaders accurately assess the maturity level of their followers (their competence and motivation to perform) and then apply one of four leadership styles—telling, selling, participating, or delegating. The leader’s style must vary with the situation and the follower’s personal attributes to achieve the desired outcomes. There is no single “best” leadership style for all situations.
Transformational and Transactional Leadership Theories. Transformational theory maintains that leadership is a process by which leaders and followers raise each other to higher levels of morality and motivation. Leaders appeal to followers’ higher ideals and moral values and stimulate higher-order needs in followers. Followers have trust, admiration, loyalty, and respect for the leader. Leaders transform and motivate followers by (a) making followers aware of the importance of their jobs and of the quality of their job performance; (b) motivating followers to place their self-interests behind those of the organization; (c) articulating a
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Readings on Behavioral Theories of Leadership
- A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness,^ by F. E. Fiedler (1967). New York: McGraw-Hill.
- “Patterns of Aggressive Behavior in Experimentally Created Social Climates,” by H. Lewin, R. Lippit, and R. K. White (1939), in Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-299.
- The Management of Organizational Behavior (5th edition), by P. Hersey and K. H. Blanchard (1988). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- Leadership and Supervision in Industry, by E. A. Fleishman, E. F. Harris, and R. D. Burtt (1955). Columbus, OH: State University Press.
Readings on Trait Theories of Leadership
- “Personal Factors Associated With Leadership: A Survey of the Literature,” by R. M. Stogdill (1948), in Journal of Psychology, 25, 35-71.
- Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership (3rd edition), by B. M. Bass and R. M. Stogdill (1990). New York: Free Press.
vision, promoting it vigorously, and modeling expected behaviors; (d) individual- izing consideration of followers’ needs and goals; and (e) stimulating followers’ intellectual interests. Transactional leadership involves the daily exchanges of incentives and re- wards for compliance. This is a quid pro quo type of leadership in which job secu- rity, tenure, good evaluations, and raises are provided for subordinates’ support, cooperation, and compliance. Research findings on transformational and transactional leadership are mixed, but seem to indicate that effective leaders use a combination of transformational and transactional behaviors.
The Effective Schools Research and the
Implications for Effective Leadership
One of the most intriguing aspects of the effective schools movement is the lack of a clear and universally accepted definition of school effectiveness. The lit- erature on school effectiveness generally agrees that effective schools are those that make a difference in student performance on standardized tests of achieve- ment. Edmonds (1982) provides a general definition that embraces the gestalt of the effective schools movement. He defines effective schools as those in which stu- dents from lower socioeconomic backgrounds perform as well on basic skills tests as do students from mid-level socioeconomic backgrounds. As the research on effective schools expanded, a wider array of assumptions about schools in general accumulated. These assumptions are (a) schools are responsible for the academic success or failure of their students; (b) students are capable of learning regardless of their ethnicity or home or cultural background; (c) students from low socio- economic status families do not need a different curriculum, and poverty does not excuse failure; and (d) differences between schools impact student achievement, and those differences can be controlled by the school. These assumptions resulted from a new line of research that focused on pro- cesses of schooling, unlike previous research, which focused on the quantities of resources available to schools and individual student characteristics. Researchers believed that success on standardized tests was not restricted to basic skills mas- tery, and that test performance was not an accurate reflection of the overall mis- sion of education. Effective schools are now defined as those that can meet the social, emotional, physical, and academic needs of students. Interest in the social and emotional development of students began to take on greater importance as educators reexamined their value to the overall mission of education and the implications for their impacting student test performance. As a result, defining school effectiveness based on student performance on standardized tests alone began to be seen as inadequate. Effective schools are now defined as those having
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