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DEMIDEC
AP (^) Psychology
(^) Cram
(^) Kit (^) I 32
LEARNING
AND
c.®GNITION
Classical
Conditioning
STIMULUS
AND
RESPONSE
PAVLOV’S
DOGS
When
(^) people
(^) think
(^) of (^) classical
(^) conditioning,
(^) they
(^) think
of (^) Russian
(^) physiologist
(^) Ivan
(^) Pavlov.
(^) While
(^) studying
digestion,
(^) Pavlov
(^) discovered
(^) that
(^) dogs
(^) could pair the
tone
(^) of (^) a (^) bell
(^) with
(^) the
(^) presence
(^) of (^) food.
(^) The
(^) dogs
began
(^) to (^) salivate
(^) at (^) the presence
(^) of (^) the (^) bell
(^) alone.
The (^) unconditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) produces
(^) an (^) involuntary
response.
(^) Food,
(^) for (^) example,
(^) causes
(^) salivation.
(^) Food,
then,
(^) is (^) the (^) unconditioned stimulus,
(^) and
(^) salivation
(^) is (^) the
unconditioned
(^) response.
Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditione d response
Conditioned stimulus
When
(^) the
(^) unconditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) of (^) food
(^) is (^) joined
(^) with
a neutral
(^) stimulus,
(^) such
(^) as (^) a (^) bell,
(^) the
(^) two
(^) become
(^) paired
together
(^) to (^) produce
(^) salivation.
Conditioned stimulus
Ultimately
(^) the (^) neutral
(^) stimulus
(^) can
(^) produce
(^) salivation
on (^) its (^) own,
(^) making
(^) it (^) a (^) conditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) and
(^) the
salivation
(^) a (^) conditioned
(^) response.
PAIRING
METHODS
BACKWARDS
AND
FORWARDS
Forward
conditioning
(^) Conditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) is
presented
(^) before the
(^) unconditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) (most
effective).
Delay
(^) conditioning
(^) Conditioned
(^) stimulus
remains
(^) present until
(^) the
(^) unconditioned
stimulus
(^) begins.
Trace
(^) conditioning
(^) Conditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) is
removed
(^) before the
(^) presentation
(^) of (^) the
unconditioned
(^) stimulus.
Simultaneous
(^) conditioning
(^) Conditioned
(^) stimulus
and (^) unconditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) are (^) presented
(^) at (^) the (^) same
Backwardtime.
(^) conditioning
(^) Unconditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) is
presented
(^) before
(^) the (^) conditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) (least
effective).
TERMS
AND
CONDITIONS
THE
FINE
PRINT
Anything that
(^) can
(^) be (^) learned
(^) can
(^) be (^) unlearned.
Acquisition
(^) results
(^) when the
(^) conditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) can
produce the
(^) conditioned
(^) response
(^) without
(^) the
presence
(^) of (^) the (^) unconditioned
(^) stimulus.
(^) However,
(^) if
the (^) conditioned stimulus
(^) is (^) repeatedly
(^) presented
without
(^) the
(^) unconditioned
(^) stimulus, the
(^) association
between
(^) the (^) two
(^) will
(^) diminish,
(^) and
extinctionwill
occur.
(^) If (^) the (^) response
(^) does
(^) happen
(^) to (^) reappear
(^) after
(^) it
has (^) been
(^) extinguished,
(^) it (^) is (^) called
(^) spontaneous
recovery.
Much
(^) of (^) learning
(^) is (^) trial
(^) and
(^) error.
~‘“
When
(^) subjects
(^) respond
(^) to (^) stimuli
that
(^) are (^) similar
(^) to (^) the (^) conditioned
stimuli,
(^) it (^) is (^) known
(^) as
generalization.
(^) When
(^) the
subjects
(^) have
(^) been
(^) taught
(^) to (^) tell
the (^) difference
(^) between
(^) the
closely
(^) related
(^) stimuli,
(^) it (^) is (^) considered
(^) discrimination.
The (^) pattern
(^) of (^) acquisition
(^) can
(^) begin
(^) all (^) over
(^) again.
When
(^) a (^) conditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) is (^) used
(^) as (^) an
unconditioned
(^) stimulus,
(^) it (^) can
(^) produce
(^) a (^) new response.
This
(^) is (^) called
(^) higher-order
(^) or (^) second-order
(^) corio’itioning
For (^) example,
(^) if (^) a (^) bell
(^) that
(^) prompts
(^) salivation
(^) is (^) paired
with
(^) a (^) flashing
(^) light,
(^) the
(^) light
(^) could
(^) begin
(^) to (^) prompt
salivation
(^) all (^) on
(^) its
(^) own,
(^) as (^) well.
Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned d Conditione Response response
AP (^) Psychology
(^) Cram
(^) Kit (^) I 33
DEMIDEC~
CRAM
QUIZ
Classical
Conditioning
QUESTION
When
(^) a (^) previously
(^) conditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) is (^) used
(^) as (^) an
unconditioned stimulus,
(^) it (^) is (^) known
(^) as
(A)
(^) higher-order
(^) conditioning
(B)
(^) trace
(^) conditioning
(C) backward
(^) conditioning
(D)
(^) delay
(^) conditiohing
(E)
(^) simultaneous
(^) conditioning
QUESTION
What
(^) type
(^) of (^) conditioning
(^) is (^) exemplified
(^) when the
conditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) is (^) present until
(^) the
(^) unconditioned
stimulus
(^) begins?
(A)
(^) higher-order
(^) conditioning
(B)
(^) trace
(^) conditioning
(C)
(^) backward
(^) conditioning
(D)
(^) delay
(^) conditioning
(E)
(^) simultaneous
(^) conditioning
QUESTION
A
(^) group
(^) of (^) dogs
(^) have been
(^) trained
(^) to (^) sit (^) whenever
(^) they
hear
(^) any
(^) bell
(^) ring.
(^) One
(^) dog,
(^) though,
(^) will
(^) only sit
(^) when
(^) he
hears
(^) the (^) bell
(^) he (^) was
(^) trained
(^) with.
(^) What
(^) does
(^) this
exemplify? (A) (^) acquisition
(B)
(^) generalization
(C)
(^) discrimination
(D)
(^) extinction
(E)
second-order
(^) conditioning
QUESTION
Which
(^) of (^) the (^) following
(^) types
(^) of (^) classical
(^) conditioning
(^) is
least
(^) effective?
(A)
(^) higher-order
(^) conditioning
(B)
(^) trace
(^) conditioning
(C)
(^) backward
(^) conditioning
(D)
(^) delay
(^) conditioning
(E)
simultaneous
(^) conditioning
QUESTION
A
(^) young
(^) girl (^) is (^) afraid
(^) of (^) fluffy, white
(^) rabbits.
(^) Fear
(^) of
which
(^) of (^) the (^) following
(^) stimuli
(^) would
(^) demonstrate
generalization? (A) (^) loud noises
(B)
(^) giraffes
(C)
(^) rabbit
(^) food
(D)
(^) white
(^) cats
(E)
lights
QUESTION
How
(^) can
(^) a (^) learned
(^) behavior
(^) be (^) extinguished?
(A)The
(^) unconditioned stimulus
(^) is (^) repeatedly
presented
(^) without
(^) the
(^) conditioned
(^) response.
(B)
(^) The
(^) conditioned stimulus
(^) is (^) repeatedly
(^) presented
without
(^) the
(^) unconditioned
(^) stimulus.
(C)
(^) The
(^) conditioned stimulus
(^) is (^) repeatedly
(^) presented
without
(^) the (^) unconditioned
(^) response.
(D)The
(^) unconditioned
(^) stimulus
(^) is (^) repeatedly
presented
(^) without
(^) the (^) unconditioned
(^) response.
(E) The
(^) conditioned stimulus
(^) is (^) repeatedly
(^) presented
without
(^) the (^) conditioned
(^) response.
QUESTION
What
(^) kind
(^) of (^) conditioning
(^) includes
(^) delay
(^) and
(^) trace
conditioning? (A) (^) simultaneous
(^) conditioning
(B)
higher-order
(^) conditioning
(C)
(^) aversive
(^) conditioning
(D)
(^) backward
(^) conditioning
(E)
(^) forward conditioning
QUESTION
In (^) the
(^) case
(^) of (^) Pavlov’s
(^) dogs,
(^) what
(^) was
(^) the
(^) conditioned
stimulus? (A)a
(^) bell
(B)
(^) food
(C)
(^) salivation
(D)
(^) light
(E)
licking
ANSWERS
<~UU~O~LU<
AP (^) Psychology
(^) Cram
(^) Kit (^) I 35
DEMIDEC~
CRAM
(^) QUIZ
Classical
(^) Conditioning
QUESTION
Prior
(^) to (^) the
(^) Little
(^) Albert
(^) experiment,
(^) Albert
(^) was
(^) most
afraid of (A) (^) bright
(^) lights
(B)
(^) loud noises
(C)
(^) small
(^) animals
(D)
(^) large
(^) vehicles
(E)
foul (^) smells
QUESTION
What
(^) kind
(^) of (^) conditioning
(^) was
(^) used
(^) in (^) the
(^) Little
(^) Albert
experiment? (A) (^) forward
(^) conditioning
(B) delay
(^) conditioning
(C)
(^) trace
(^) conditioning
(D)
(^) simultaneous
(^) conditioning
(E)
(^) backward
(^) conditioning
QUESTION
(^) ~J
In (^) the (^) Little
(^) Albert
(^) experiment,
(^) what
(^) was
(^) the
conditioned
(^) stimulus?
(B)(A)rat
noise
(D)(C)fear (^) Watson
(E)
fluffy
(^) things
QUESTION
Who
(^) discovered
(^) conditioned taste
(^) aversion?
(A)
(^) Watson
(B)
Rayner
(C)
(^) Pavlov
(E)(D)Skinner
Garcia
QUESTION
An animal
(^) is (^) most likely
(^) to (^) associate
(^) illness
(^) with
(A)
(^) noise
(B)
light
(C)
(^) food
(E)(D)germs
exercise
QUESTION
Why
(^) does
(^) Robert
(^) Rescorla
(^) believe classical
(^) conditioning
works? (A) (^) The
(^) conditioned stimulus
(^) occurs
(^) at (^) the (^) same
(^) time
as (^) the (^) unconditioned
(^) stimulus.
(B)
(^) The
(^) conditioned stimulus
(^) predicts
(^) the
unconditioned
(^) stimulus.
(C)
(^) The
(^) conditioned stimulus
(^) predicts the
(^) conditioned
response.
(D)The
(^) conditioned stimulus
(^) occurs
(^) at (^) the (^) same
(^) time
as (^) the (^) conditioned
(^) response.
(E)
(^) The
(^) conditioned stimulus
(^) is (^) generalized
(^) to (^) other
stimuli.
QUESTION
What
(^) approach
(^) to (^) classical
(^) conditioning
did
(^) Pavlov
(^) and
Watson
(^) espouse?
(A)
(^) contingency
(^) approach
(B)
reinforcement
(^) approach
(C)
(^) generalization
(^) approach
(D)
(^) aversive
(^) approach
(E)
contiguity
(^) approach
What QUESTIONS
(^) school
(^) of (^) psychology
(^) did (^) Watson
(^) establish?
(A)
(^) humanistic
(B)
cognitive
(C)
(^) behaviorism
(D)
(^) functionalism
(E)
(^) gestalt
ANSWERS
~D<UJU~LLJU
DEMIDEC~
AP (^) Psychology
(^) Cram
(^) Kit (^) I
LEARNING
AND
COGNITION
Operant
Conditioning
REINFORCEMENT
SGHEDULES
OF
REINFORCEMENT
Positive
(^) reinforcement:
Reward
(^) that
(^) increases
the (^) likelihood
(^) of
repeating
(^) a (^) response
Negative
(^) reinforce
ment:
Removal of
(^) an
aversive
(^) stimulus
(^) that
increases
(^) the (^) likelihood
of (^) repeating
(^) a (^) response
Pu (^) ~s
(^) h (^) men
(^) t
Positive
(^) punishment:
Aversive
(^) stimulus
(^) is
administered
(^) to
decrease
(^) the
(^) likelihood
of (^) repeating
(^) a response
Negative
(^) (omission)
punishment:
(^) Reward
(^) is
withheld
(^) to (^) decrease the
likelihood
(^) of (^) repeating
(^) a
response
•Reward
(^) after
(^) an (^) unpredic-table
number
(^) of (^) responses
GOOD
THINGS
COME
IN
SMALL
PACKAGES
B.F.
(^) Skinner
(^) was
(^) another
(^) pioneer
(^) in (^) the study
(^) of (^) operant
conditioning
(^) (in (^) fact,
(^) he (^) coined
(^) the
(^) term).
(^) He (^) designed
an (^) apparatus
(^) commonly
(^) called
(^) a (^) Skinner
(^) Box
(^) or (^) operant
conditioning
(^) chamber.
(^) He (^) would
(^) place
(^) rats
(^) inside
(^) the
box, (^) which contained
(^) a (^) lever
(^) and
(^) a (^) food
(^) dispenser.
When
(^) the
(^) rats pressed
(^) the (^) lever,
(^) they
(^) received food.
(^) The
food
(^) positively
(^) reinforced
(^) pressing the
(^) lever.
Additional
(^) research
(^) with
(^) operant
(^) conditioning
(^) chambers
has (^) utilized
(^) electric
(^) shocks,
(^) loud
(^) noises, and
(^) lights.
(^) If (^) the
rats (^) press
(^) the
(^) lever
(^) to (^) terminate
(^) the
(^) shock
(^) or (^) noise,
(^) they
are (^) demonstrating
(^) negative
(^) reinforcement.
(^) If (^) the (^) rats
(^) are
shocked when
(^) they
(^) press
(^) the (^) lever,
(^) the researchers
(^) are
employing
(^) positive punishment.
(^) If (^) food
(^) is (^) taken
(^) away
when
(^) the (^) rats
(^) press
(^) the
(^) lever,
(^) it (^) exemplifies
(^) negative
punishment.
(^) Lights
(^) are (^) sometimes
(^) used
(^) to (^) alert
(^) the (^) rats
to (^) the
(^) presence
(^) of (^) food.
PETE
AND
REPEAT
Every
(^) behavior
(^) has
(^) consequences.
(^) Operant
conditioning
(^) involves
(^) learning
(^) a (^) response
(^) in (^) order to
obtain
(^) a (^) reward
(^) or (^) avoid
(^) a (^) punishment.
THORNDIKE’S
LAW
OF
EFFECT
Edward
(^) Thorndike
(^) was one
(^) of (^) the (^) first
(^) operant
conditioning
(^) researchers.
He (^) studied
(^) hungry
(^) cats
in (^) puzzle
(^) boxes.
(^) The
(^) amount
(^) of (^) time
(^) required
(^) for
the (^) cats
(^) to (^) get (^) out
(^) of (^) the (^) boxes
(^) to (^) the
(^) food located
nearby
(^) decreased
(^) with
(^) each
(^) attempt.
(^) Thorndike
suggested
(^) that
(^) the
(^) cats
(^) were
(^) strengthening
(^) the
connection between
(^) stimulus
(^) and
(^) response.
Thorndike’s
(^) /awofeffectstates
(^) that
(^) the likelihood
of (^) repeating
(^) a (^) behavior
(^) increases
(^) if (^) the
consequences
(^) are (^) pleasant,
(^) while
(^) the likelihood
decreases
(^) if (^) the (^) consequences
(^) are (^) unpleasant.
Reinforcement
KEEPING
THE
TRAINS
ON
TIME
Continuous
Reward
c~~i~y
(^) correct
(^) response
•Learning
(^) and
(^) extinc-tion
(^) occ-ur
(^) quic-kl,y
•Not
(^) all correc-t
(^) responses
(^) are
Intermittent
•Rewardrewarded
(^) after
(^) a (^) preset
(^) number
(^) of
Fixed-ratio
responses
Fixed-intervalVariable-ratio
Reward
(^) after
(^) a (^) preset period
(^) ~time
Variable-
Reward
(^) after
(^) an (^) unpredictable
(^) period
interval
of (^) time
~UU~
Skinner^ SKINNER BOX
(^) Box
Lights^ Loudspeaker
A’
V^ I v (^) - (^) —
-~
Response
(^) lever
Food (^) dIspenser
gridElectrified
In,~ (^) ~Mdr~
(^) J. Sd,w~ (^) Drr~,.n~t
A~o~ (^) P,ot~~n~
(^) M,GiIIU&~~~,4y
TYPES
OF
REINFORCERS
Primary
(^) reinforcement:
(^) Naturally satisfying
reinforcers
(^) that
(^) do (^) not
(^) need
(^) to (^) be (^) learned,
(^) such
(^) as
food
(^) and
(^) water
Secondary
(^) reinforcement:
(^) Learned
(^) reinforcers,
(^) such
as (^) money,
(^) that
(^) come
(^) to (^) be (^) associated
(^) with
behaviors
DEMIDEC~
AP (^) Psychology
(^) Cram
(^) Kit (^) I
LEARNING
AND
COGNITION
Other Methods of
Learning
OBSERVATIONAL
AND
LATENT
LEARNING
INSIGHT
LEARNING
MONKEY
SEE,
MONKEY
DO
Observational learning
(^) goes
(^) by (^) a (^) number
(^) of (^) names.
These
(^) include
(^) modeling,
(^) social
(^) learning,
(^) and
(^) vicarious
learning.
(^) It (^) occurs
(^) when
(^) individuals
(^) learn
(^) how
(^) to (^) do
something
(^) by (^) watching
(^) and
(^) imitating
(^) others.
Bobo (^) Doll
People
(^) often
(^) wonder
(^) if (^) children
(^) who
(^) see
(^) violence
(^) will
(^) act
more
(^) violently
(^) themselves.
(^) Albert
(^) Bandura
(^) explored this
issue
(^) by (^) having
(^) children
(^) watch
(^) videos of
(^) adults
(^) playing
with
(^) toys,
(^) including
(^) Bobo
(^) dolls.
(^) In (^) some videos,
(^) adults
aggressively
(^) beat
(^) up (^) the (^) dolls,
(^) while
(^) others
(^) played
(^) non-
aggressively.
(^) The
(^) children
(^) were
(^) later
(^) given
(^) a (^) chance
(^) to
play
(^) in (^) a (^) room
(^) full (^) of toys,
(^) again
(^) including
(^) Bobo
(^) dolls.
Those
(^) children
(^) who
(^) observed aggressive
(^) behaviors
tended
(^) to (^) attack
(^) the (^) dolls
(^) while
(^) those who
(^) saw
(^) the
nonaggressive
(^) adults
(^) did (^) not
(^) usually
(^) act aggressively.
RAT
RACE
THE
“AHA!’
MOMENT
Insight
(^) learning
(^) occurs
(^) through
(^) sudden
(^) realization
(^) of
how to
(^) solve
(^) a (^) problem—it
(^) is (^) that
(^) “Eureka!”
(^) or (^) “Aha!”
moment
(^) when
(^) the light
(^) bulb
(^) goes
(^) on (^) over
(^) your
(^) head.
Wolfgang
(^) Kohler
(^) studied
(^) insight
(^) learning
(^) in
chimpanzees.
(^) In (^) one
(^) study,
(^) Kohler
(^) put
(^) the (^) chimps
(^) in
rooms
(^) with
(^) bananas
(^) hanging
(^) overhead,
(^) out
(^) of (^) reach.
The (^) room
(^) contained
(^) several
(^) boxes,
(^) but
(^) a (^) single
(^) box
alone was
(^) not
(^) tall (^) enough
(^) to (^) reach
(^) the (^) bananas.
(^) After
considerable
(^) frustration,
(^) the
(^) chimps
(^) would
(^) suddenly
pile (^) the (^) boxes
(^) up on
(^) top
(^) of (^) each
(^) other
(^) and
(^) climb
(^) to (^) get
to (^) the (^) bananas.
(^) They
(^) seemed
(^) to (^) have
(^) a (^) spontaneous
understanding
(^) of (^) how
(^) to (^) get (^) to (^) their
(^) food.
ABSTRACT
LEARNING
THE
BIG
PICTURE
Abstract
(^) learning
(^) involves
(^) understanding
(^) concepts,
which
(^) are (^) rules
(^) for (^) organizing
(^) stimuli
(^) into
(^) groups.
Edward
Tolman’s
Rats
Grou~
Received
(^) no
reward
(^) f~?the
(^) first
Group
Group
I~~~1t~trials
Received
(^) a (^) reward
l~id (^) not (^) receive
bu~was
(^) rewarded
every
(^) time
(^) they
any (^) reward
(^) ~.i1?
during
(^) the (^) second
completed~
maze
(^) completion;
half; (^) at (^) first,
maze1II~S
their
(^) performance
performance
(^) did
steadily
(^) learned
did (^) not (^) improve
not (^) change much,
how~run~
much
but (^) it (^) improved
maze
(^) faster
drastically
(^) in (^) the
second half
Latent
(^) learning
(^) involves hidden
(^) knowledge
(^) that
becomes
(^) apparent
(^) once
(^) reinforcement
(^) is (^) provided.
Some
(^) behaviors
(^) have
(^) to (^) be (^) worth
(^) your
(^) while.
(^) For
example,
(^) Edward
(^) Tolman discovered
(^) that
(^) rats
(^) could
create
(^) cognitive
(^) maps
(^) of (^) mazes,
(^) but
(^) they would
(^) not
(^) run
the
(^) mazes
(^) quickly
(^) until
(^) they
(^) were
(^) rewarded.
Researchers
(^) presented
(^) pigeons
(^) with
(^) pictures.
(^) Some
showed
(^) trees
(^) and
(^) some
(^) did not. The
(^) pigeons
(^) were
taught to
(^) peck
(^) for (^) food
(^) when shown
(^) a (^) picture
(^) of (^) a (^) tree.
The (^) pigeons
(^) would
(^) peck
(^) even
(^) when
(^) presented
(^) with
images of
(^) trees
(^) that
(^) they
(^) had
(^) never
(^) seen
(^) before.
(^) This
behavior
(^) suggests
(^) that
(^) the
(^) pigeons
(^) did (^) not
(^) simply
memorize specific
(^) images—they
(^) understood the
concept
(^) of trees.
Similar
(^) studies
(^) suggest
(^) that
(^) pigeons
(^) understand
(^) the
concepts
(^) of (^) same
(^) and
(^) different.
(^) The
(^) pigeons
(^) were
presented
(^) with
(^) shapes;
(^) when
(^) given
(^) the
(^) choice
(^) between
multiple
(^) shapes,
(^) some pigeons
(^) learned
(^) to (^) peck
(^) for the
shape
(^) that
(^) was
(^) the (^) same
(^) as (^) the (^) original
(^) shape
(^) while
others
(^) learned
(^) to (^) peck
(^) at (^) the
(^) different
(^) shape.
‘. .v (^) I
I ~
-~
~,,.,
...
~i (^) .‘,. (^).
AP (^) Psychology
(^) Cram
(^) Kit (^) I 39
DEMIDEC~
CRAM
QUIZ
Other Methods
(^) of (^) Learning
What QS
(^) kind
(^) of (^) learning
(^) did (^) Wolfgang
(^) Kohler
(^) study?
(A)
(^) observational learning
(B)
(^) operant
(^) conditioning
(C)
(^) insight learning
(D)
(^) abstract
(^) learning
(E)
latent
(^) learning
QUESTION
Which
(^) of (^) the (^) following
(^) researchers
(^) studied
observational
(^) learning?
(A)
(^) Bandura
(B)
(^) Tolman
(C)
(^) Kohler
(D)
(^) Skinner
(E)
(^) Thorndike
QUESTION
Bandura
(^) used
(^) Bobo
(^) dolls
(^) to (^) study
(A)
(^) playing styles
(B)
imagination
(C)
(^) parental
(^) modeling
(D)conditioned
(^) inhibition
(E)
aggressive
(^) behavior
QUESTION
Which
(^) of (^) the (^) following
(^) groups
(^) of (^) rats
(^) would
(^) be (^) the
slowest to
(^) learn
(^) the
(^) path
(^) through
(^) a (^) maze?
(A)
(^) rats
(^) that
(^) receive
(^) no (^) rewards
(^) for (^) maze
(^) completion
(B)
(^) rats
(^) that
(^) receive
(^) a (^) reward
(^) every
(^) time
(^) they
complete
(^) a (^) maze
(C)
(^) rats
(^) that
(^) only
(^) receive
(^) rewards
(^) for (^) the (^) first
(^) half
(^) of
maze
(^) trials
(D)
(^) rats
(^) that
(^) only
(^) receive
(^) rewards
(^) for (^) the
(^) second
(^) half
of (^) maze
(^) trials
(E)
rats (^) that
(^) receive
(^) a (^) reward
(^) every
(^) other
(^) time
(^) they
complex
(^) a (^) maze
QUESTION
A
(^) chimpanzee
(^) is (^) put
(^) in (^) a (^) cage
(^) with
(^) bananas
(^) outside
(^) it.
The (^) chimp
(^) has
(^) a (^) short
(^) and
(^) a (^) long
(^) stick,
(^) but
(^) neither
(^) one
alone
(^) can
(^) reach
(^) the
(^) bananas. The
(^) chimp
(^) realizes
(^) that
(^) it
must connect
(^) the sticks
(^) to (^) get
(^) to (^) the (^) bananas.
(^) What
does
(^) this
(^) process
(^) exemplify?
(A)
(^) observational
(^) learning
(B)
latent
(^) learning
(C)
(^) classical
(^) conditioning
(D)abstract
(^) learning
(E)
insight
(^) learning
QUESTION
According
(^) to (^) Donald
(^) Hebb,
(^) how
(^) does
(^) learning occur?
(A)
(^) Neurons
(^) form
(^) and
(^) strengthen connections
(^) with
each
(^) other.
(B)
(^) Concepts
(^) are used
(^) to (^) organize
(^) stimuli
(^) into
(^) groups.
(C)
(^) Positive
(^) behaviors
(^) are (^) reinforced
(^) with
(^) rewards.
(D)
(^) Neutral
(^) stimuli
(^) are
(^) associated
(^) with
(^) involuntary
responses.
(E)
(^) Sudden
(^) realizations bring about
(^) solutions
(^) to
problems.
QUESTION
A
(^) child
(^) observes
(^) an (^) adult
(^) engaging
(^) in (^) violent
(^) behavior.
The (^) child
(^) is (^) most
(^) likely to
(A)
(^) fear
(^) aggression
(B) act
(^) aggressively
(C)
(^) act (^) non-aggressively
(D)
(^) act (^) the
(^) same
(^) as (^) he (^) would
(^) have,
(^) regardless
(^) of
seeing
(^) the (^) adult
(E)
reprimand the
(^) adult
QUESTION
(^) E~
Which
(^) of (^) the (^) following
(^) researchers
(^) would
(^) be (^) most
(^) likely
to (^) study
(^) the (^) biological
(^) factors
(^) of (^) learning?
(A)
(^) Rescorla
(B)
Ross
(C)
(^) Premack
(E)(D)Kandel
Kohler
ANSWERS
~cx~
AP (^) Psychology
(^) Cram
(^) Kit
I
41
DEMIDEC~~
CRAM
QUIZ
Memory
QUESTION
QUESTION
On (^) average,
(^) how
(^) much
(^) information
(^) can
(^) be (^) held
(^) in (^) short-
Which
(^) of (^) the (^) following
(^) researchers
(^) studied
(^) sensory
term
(^) memory?
memory?
(A)
(^) items
(A)
(^) Sperling
(B)
(^) items
(B)
(^) Loftus
(C)
(^) items
(C)
(^) Luria
(D)
(^) items
(D)Chomsky
(E)
(^) items
(E)
(^) Whorf
QUESTION
QUESTION
Your
(^) parents
(^) can
(^) remember
(^) exactly
(^) where they
(^) were
Which
(^) of (^) the (^) following
(^) types
(^) of (^) forgetting
(^) most likely
and (^) what
(^) they
(^) were doing
(^) when
(^) President
(^) Kennedy
(^) was
occurs
(^) as (^) a (^) result
(^) of brain
(^) injury?
assassinated. This
(^) is (^) an (^) example
(^) of
(A)
(^) decay
(A)
(^) episodic
(^) memory
(B)
retroactive
(^) interference
(B)
(^) semantic
(^) memory
(C)
(^) proactive interference
(C)
(^) procedural
(^) memory
(D)
(^) amnesia
(D)flashbulb
(^) memory
(E)
reconstruction
(E)
state-dependent memory
QUESTION
QUESTION
Joe (^) experienced
(^) an (^) upsetting
(^) breakup
(^) while studying
(^) for
Banana,
(^) monkey,
(^) tree,
(^) bird,
(^) cave,
waterfall, dirt, swim,
(^) fly
a test,
(^) causing
(^) him
(^) to (^) be (^) extremely
(^) upset.
(^) While
(^) taking
In (^) the
(^) above
(^) list
which
(^) item
(^) would
(^) be (^) most
(^) difficult
(^) to
the test,
(^) he (^) continued
(^) to (^) feel
(^) upset,
(^) which
(^) helped him
(^) to
recall
(^) given
(^) the (^) serial
(^) position
(^) effect?
remember
(^) the (^) information.
(^) This
(^) is (^) an (^) example
(^) of
(A)
(^) banana
(A)
(^) episodic
(^) memory
(B)
monkey
(B)
semantic
(^) memory
(C)
(^) bird
(C)
(^) procedural
(^) memory
(D)
(^) swim
(D)flashbulb
(^) memory
(E)
fly
(E)
state-dependent memory
QUESTION~
QUESTION
Amy
(^) got (^) in (^) a (^) car (^) accident
(^) and
(^) hit (^) her
(^) head
(^) hard
(^) against
Which
(^) of (^) the
(^) following
(^) researchers
(^) studied
the steering
(^) wheel.
(^) Afterward,
(^) she had
(^) difficulty
reconstructed
(^) memory?
remembering
(^) personal
(^) information
(^) and
(^) general
(A)
(^) Sperling
knowledge
(^) but still
(^) knew
(^) how
(^) to (^) do (^) things
(^) like
(^) tie (^) her
(B)
(^) Loftus
shoes
(^) and
(^) ride
(^) her
(^) bike.
(^) Which
(^) kind of
(^) memory
(C)
(^) Luria
remained
(^) intact?
(D)
(^) Chomsky
(A)
(^) episodic
(^) memory
(E)
(^) Whorf
(B)
(^) semantic
(^) memory
(C)
(^) procedural
(^) memory
(D)flashbulb
(^) memory
CE)
state-dependent memory
ANSWERS
aD.
~UJ
0< ~
aD
DEMIDEC
AP
(^) Psychology
(^) Cram
(^) Kit
I
LEARNING
AND
C®GNITION
Language
and
C~reativity
LANGUAGE
ELEMENTS
AND
GRAMMAR
LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
TRANSFORMERS
Noam
(^) Chomsky believed
(^) that
(^) language
(^) is (^) organized
according to
(^) transformational
(^) grammar,
(^) which
(^) is
divided
(^) into
(^) surface
(^) structure
(^) and
(^) deep
(^) structure.
rface
(^) Structure
words
Connotation
(^) of (^) wins
rrangement
(^) of
Deep
(^) Structure
Chomsky
(^) also
(^) noted
(^) that
(^) the (^) grammars
(^) of (^) different
languages
(^) are (^) surprisingly
(^) similar.
(^) He (^) believed
(^) that
humans
(^) are (^) born
(^) with
(^) a (^) language
(^) acquisition
(^) device,
which
(^) facilitates
(^) language
(^) acquisition
(^) when
(^) switched
(^) on
by (^) exposure
(^) to (^) language
(^) during
(^) the (^) critical
(^) period
(^) for
language
(^) learning.
WORDS
FOR
SNOW
It has (^) been
(^) said
(^) that
(^) Eskimos
(^) have
hundreds of
(^) words
(^) for (^) snow.
(^) This claim
may
(^) be an
(^) exaggeration, but
(^) it
illustrates
(^) an (^) important
(^) point:
(^) the
number
(^) of (^) words
(^) a (^) culture
(^) has
(^) to
describe
(^) something
(^) suggests
(^) the
(^) importance
(^) of (^) that
thing
(^) in (^) that
(^) culture.
Benjamin
(^) Whorf
(^) and
(^) Edward
(^) Sapir
suggested
(^) the (^) theory
(^) of (^) linguistic
(^) relativity
(^) as (^) an
explanation
(^) for (^) how
(^) language,
(^) to (^) some
(^) extent,
(^) controls
cognition.
(^) Can
(^) you
(^) think
(^) about
(^) something
(^) if you
(^) do (^) not
have
(^) words
(^) for (^) it?
FIRST
WORDS
Cooing
Infants
(^) use
(^) phonemes
(^) that
(^) do (^) not resemble
(^) real
(^) words.
Babbling
Next,
(^) infants
(^) use
(^) phonemes
(^) to convey
(^) meaning.
Holophrases
(^) are (^) single
(^) words conveying
(^) broader
Givenmeanings.
(^) their
(^) limited
(^) vocabularies,
(^) infants often
overextend
(^) word
(^) meanings.
Even
(^) deaf
(^) infants
(^) babble.
Infants
(^) can
(^) pronounce
(^) phonemes
(^) from
(^) every
(^) language,
but (^) those
(^) that
(^) are (^) not
(^) used
(^) are (^) lost.
Telegraphic
(^) speech
At (^) around
(^) two
(^) years
(^) old,
(^) infants
(^) have
(^) developed
(^) a
vocabulary
(^) of (^) about
(^) 100 words.
They
(^) can
(^) combine
(^) a (^) few
(^) words
(^) together
(^) to (^) create
simple commands, usually
(^) lacking
(^) parts
(^) of (^) speech.
Overgeneralization
Between
(^) two
(^) and
(^) three
(^) years
(^) of (^) age,
(^) vocabulary
expands
(^) exponentially.
Children
(^) learning the
(^) rules
(^) of (^) grammar
(^) often
overgeneralize
(^) and
(^) misapply
(^) the (^) rules.
Adult
speech
By (^) the
(^) age
(^) of (^) 10, (^) children
(^) have
(^) language
(^) abilities similar
to those
(^) of (^) an (^) adult.
CREATIVITY
AND
PROBLEM
SOLVING
STROKE
OF
GENIUS
Deductive
(^) reasoning:
(^) Drawing specific conclusions
from
(^) general
(^) statements.
Inductive
(^) reasoning:
(^) Drawing
(^) general
(^) conclusions
(^) from
specific
(^) observations.
Divergent
(^) thinking:
(^) Searching
(^) for (^) several
(^) solutions.
Convergent
(^) thinking:
(^) Searching
(^) for (^) a (^) single answer.
Heuristic:
(^) Rule
(^) of (^) thumb
(^) used
(^) to (^) make
(^) a (^) quick
(^) judgment.
Availability
(^) heuristic:
(^) Judgment
(^) based
(^) on (^) whatever
information
(^) comes
(^) to (^) mind
(^) first.
Representativeness
(^) heuristic:
(^) Judgment
(^) based
(^) on
comparison
(^) with
(^) a (^) prototype.
Algorithm:
(^) Rule
(^) that
(^) determines
(^) guaranteed
(^) answers
Mental
(^) set:
(^) Rigid
(^) thought
(^) pattern.
Functional fixedness:
(^) Tendency to
(^) use
(^) objects
(^) only
(^) for
their
(^) designed purpose.
Confirmation
(^) bias:
(^) Tendency to
(^) look
(^) for information
that
(^) supports
(^) a (^) preexisting
(^) viewpoint.
Hindsight
(^) bias:
(^) Tendency
(^) to (^) think
(^) you
(^) knew
(^) the
outcome
(^) of (^) an (^) event
(^) in (^) advance.
Belief
(^) perseverance: Inability
(^) to (^) accept
(^) contradictory
evidence.
BUILDING
BLOCKS
Syntax:
Morphemes:
Word
(^) order
I
Smallest
,~J
Semantics:
meaningful
W.rd
units
(^) of
m~nin~s
sound
4
Phonemes: unitsSmallest
(^) of
sound
Language and
Grammar
Pragmatics: Use (^) of
language
(^) in
context
