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AB STR ACT
Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 3) is a full scale re-cre- ation by Marcel Duchamp of his seminal 1912 oil painting, Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2). The collector Walter Arensberg commissioned the work in 1916 after he failed to acquire the original at the New York Armory Show in
- The work is executed in a variety of media including ink, graphite, water-based paint, and colored pencil/crayon over a full-scale photographic enlargement of the original painting. Duchamp’s dynamic reworking of the image almost completely obscures evidence of the underlying photograph, complicating characterization of the object. Existing as both drawing-painting and photograph, Nude Descending (No. 3) is at once a “reproduction” as well as a singular, powerful work of art in its own right. This paper examines the diverse materials and techniques of its cre- ation as revealed through close examination and scientific analysis, including scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), gas chromatography- mass spectrometry (GCMS) and Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy (MFTIR), and historical research. The composite nature and inherent fragility of the object presents formidable challenges for its conserva- tion. Condition problems and conservation requirements resulting from the work’s complex structure and rich his- tory, as well as the context in which it was created and exhibited—including a brief appearance in a department store window display—are presented.
INTRODUCTION
While Marcel Duchamp’s iconic Nude Descending a Staircase undoubtedly is familiar to anyone who has opened an art history textbook—and likely to many who haven’t— few are aware that multiple unique versions of the seminal work were executed by the artist. These include a 1911 oil study, the iconic 1912 oil painting (fig. 1), and a full-scale replica executed by the artist in 1916 using a variety of media over a large photograph of the original painting. This paper provides a brief history behind the creation of the unique 1916 version (fig. 2), now known as Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 3) and highlights its materials, techniques, and issues for conservation. All three Nude Descending versions, in addition to other related works by Duchamp, are part of the Louis and Walter Arensberg Collection, which forms a cornerstone of the Philadelphia Museum of Art’s modernist holdings.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
In November of 1912, the American painter Walter Pach and two associates were engaged in a whirlwind tour across Europe in a search for the newest and boldest art- works the continent had to offer. The occasion was their ambitious upcoming International Exhibition of Modern Art, to become known simply as the Armory Show. At the time, Paris was the established center of the avant-garde, and one stop was the suburban studio of three artistic brothers: Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Gaston Duchamp (also known as Jacques Villon), and Marcel Duchamp. From the twenty-five-year-old Marcel, four works were selected. During the studio visit co-organizer Arthur Davies remarked of the relatively little known painter’s work, “That’s the strongest expression I’ve seen yet” (Brown 1988). By the time of the Armory Show’s closing, Duchamp would enjoy near celebrity status in America and his odd, angular painting of a figure descending a stair-
The Remaking of a Modernist Icon:
Marcel Duchamp’s Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 3)
SCOTT HOMOLKA , BETH A. PRICE , AND KEN SUTHERLAND
The Book and Paper Group Annual 26 (2007) 45
Presented at the Book & Paper Group/ICOM-CC Graphic Documents Joint Session, AIC 35th Annual Meeting, April 16–20, 2007, Richmond, Virginia. Received for publication Fall
case would be forever marked as one of the most significant and controversial signposts of modern art. The painting was purchased from the Armory Show by San Francisco collector and art dealer Frederick Torrey, who in a moment of inspiration wired New York while returning by train to California. Torrey’s telegram to orga- nizer Walter Pach reads: “ (^) I WILL BUY DUCHAMP NUDE WOMAN DESCENDING STAIRWAY PLEASE RESERVE ” (Naumann 1991). Following the success and scandal of the Armory Show, and with war raging in Europe, Pach convinced Duchamp to move to New York. Arriving on June 15, 1915, the artist was introduced immediately to Walter and Louise Arensberg and would stay in their Manhattan apartment while they summered in the country (Tomkins 1996). The Arensbergs had developed a deep interest in the avant-
garde following the Armory Show, and throughout their lives would prove to be the artist’s greatest supporters and patrons.
THE REMAKING OF AN ICON
In 1916, Duchamp moved into a new studio in the Arensbergs’ building at 33 W. 67th St. and resumed work on his enigmatic Large Glass, also known as The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even. It is in this studio, in October 1916, that Duchamp would execute at the com- mission of Walter Arensberg, a full-scale replica of the 1912 Nude Descending a Staircase oil painting that had eluded the collector three years earlier (Schwarz 1997). An account of the making of the Nude Descending replica was captured by
46 The Book and Paper Group Annual 26 (2007)
Fig. 2. Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 3). Graphite, pen and black ink, colored pencil/crayon, and blue wash over a mounted gelatin silver photograph. Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection, Philadelphia Museum of Art. 1950.134.60.
Fig. 1. Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2). Oil on canvas. Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection, Philadelphia Museum of Art. 1950.134.59.
from the edges of the picture were prepared as cross-sec- tions and examined using visible and fluorescence light microscopy. Visual examination of the photographic struc- ture in cross-section reveals silver image-forming particles dispersed throughout the binder layer, particularly evident in samples obtained from high-density regions of the pho- tographic image. Selected sections were examined further using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive and wavelength dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS and WDS). EDS element mapping confirmed the image material as consisting of elemental silver or a silver salt (silver sulfide), likely a combination of the two for a print that has been sepia-toned. Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy (MFTIR) and gas chromatography- mass spectrometry (GCMS) confirmed the binder as gelatin. Element mapping also confirmed a barium sulfate substrate (baryta layer), as well as traces of residual chlorine and bromine, all consistent with a silver gelatin developing- out paper. The thin baryta layer can be seen in cross-section (fig. 4a) as an irregular white particulate material settled mostly in the interstices of the paper fibers. In addition to the image material, the gelatin binder layer was revealed to contain large starch granules, visible prominently in cross- section using fluorescence light microscopy with a combination of ultraviolet and visible illumination (fig. 4b). Starch was used extensively in the industry as a mat- ting agent in photographic papers, incorporated into the gelatin emulsion layer during manufacture (Price and Sutherland 2005). Polarized light microscopy confirmed the granules to be rice starch based on grain size and mor- phology (Stoeffler 2000).
PHOTOGR APHIC SUPPORT : MANUFACTURE AND
MOUNTING
While almost no documentation exists about the cre- ation of Nude Descending (No. 3) , a label on the reverse of the mount preserves the identity of the studio that pro- duced and mounted the print. The label reads: “Ye Little Photo Shoppe / Developing, Printing and Enlarging / Hotel Chelsea bldg. / 228 West 23rd Street” (the Hotel Chelsea is itself a New York landmark with its own rich history). The attached label suggests that the mounting was carried out by the commercial photography studio prior to delivery to Duchamp. In fact, photography studios routinely offered a variety of mounting options for enlargements including stretchers for displaying them in the fashion of oil paint- ings. While mounting techniques available at the time included aqueous adhesive systems, as well as the newly developed “dry-mount” technique (Jarman 1916), the Nude Descending (No. 3) print appears to be adhered over- all with a starch-based adhesive. Tack marks located along the wrapped edges of the support preserve visual evidence of the typical enlarging process for bromide printing at the
time: exposure using a horizontal enlarging camera with the sensitized photographic paper tacked upright to a board and exposed using an artificial light source (Fraprie 1916; Osborne 1911). A 1916 Kodak sample book from the George Eastman House International Museum of Photography and Film in Rochester, New York, offered a valuable comparative source for the type of photographic paper that may have been used for the enlargement (Eastman Kodak 1916). A close visual match was found in the Eastman House col- lections: a double weight bromide developing-out paper, exhibiting similar surface texture, binder, and paper thick- nesses. An Eastman Kodak Company catalogue from the same year details this bromide enlargement paper, offered as: “a heavy rough paper for crayon and air brush work” (Eastman Kodak 1917, 169). The paper also was offered in ten-yard-long rolls of forty inches in width. The actual width of the photographic support for Nude Descending (No. 3) is trimmed just under forty inches, consistent with such a roll paper or a similar one produced at the time by Kodak or another manufacturer (Fraprie 1916).
DR AWING MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES
While the source negative used to produce the photo- graphic enlargement has not been identified (McManus 2006), it was almost certainly small, and the enlargement consequently suffers from an extreme loss of resolution. This poor resolution is most noticeable on the exposed edges where the photographic image remains unobscured by applied media. Duchamp’s extensive reworking of the design was therefore essential, and echoes the once popu- lar tradition of crayon portraiture—enhancing and
48 The Book and Paper Group Annual 26 (2007)
Fig. 4. Cross-sections of the photographic support: (a) the emul- sion and barium sulfate (baryta) substrate (in visible illumination); and, (b) starch granules incorporated into the gelatin emulsion and silver image particles (in combined visi- ble/ultraviolet illumination).
providing greater definition and richness to a relatively limited photographic image beneath (Whiting 1914; Eder 1978). The beautiful result is a slightly mechanized re-imag- ining of the earlier painting: crisp, hard-edged, and dynamic. The somewhat earthy palette of the oil painting has given way to parallel ruled lines, the silvery metallic sheen of graphite and splashes of cool blue. Careful exam- ination reveals additional clues about Duchamp’s materials and working process. The artist appears to have used graphite to trace out and further define elements of the relatively diffuse photographic image. Broad areas of graphite shading were achieved using smudged or wiped graphite (possibly in conjunction with a wet technique) with areas of erasure. Additional design work consists of black pen and ink lines (fig. 5), some applied with the guide of a straight edge and a curved template. The ink lines often form long parallel bands filled in with densely applied graphite, imbuing the work with added definition and a strong sense of linearity. The only broadly applied liquid medium apparent on Nude Descending (No. 3) is a blue wash, the most notable characteristic of which is its extreme mobility. With visual characteristics of a very fluid ink or paint, the blue exhibits a loose, brushy application including areas where subse- quent liquid drips caused the blue colorant to move and redeposit forming tidelines (fig. 6). Examination of areas of loss in the photographic surface reveal how surprisingly mobile the blue wash was; it readily penetrated though the photographic emulsion and baryta layer, staining the paper fibers below. Analysis using MFTIR suggests the colorant is Prussian blue, based on the prominent nitrile peak char- acteristic of a cyano-complex visible in the infrared spectrum, in combination with a relative abundance of iron detected in a sample using EDS. In addition to the graphite, black ink, and blue wash, Duchamp worked up his composition using a set of col- ored drawing materials, dramatically applied in patterns of dynamic swirls (fig. 7). The colored drawing materials dis- play visual characteristics of a wax-based colored pencil or crayon (Borgeson 1995). Distinguishing between these wax-based media can be extremely difficult, even utilizing analytical techniques, as both contain roughly the same basic ingredients and the relative concentrations are hard to quantify (Reid et al. 2002). Characterization is further complicated by the interchangeable use of such terms as “crayon” and “colored pencil” in period trade literature (Ellis and Yea 1988). However, based on the handling of the material and such characteristics as texture and line width and uniformity, the material most resembles colored pencil. These characteristics can be observed clearly where Duchamp’s strokes extend over onto the side edges and trail off. The strokes also provide additional evidence that
the photographic support was mounted to the panel prior to execution of the design. Analysis of the colored drawing materials using MFTIR detected kaolinite, a standard filler in colored pencils, in addition to evidence of organic binder components. Spectral bands were observed indicative of a fatty acid salt, possibly an additive to the drawing medium or derived from a reaction of pigment with the binder phase. GCMS provided additional information on the organic binder, identifying components consistent with paraffin and Japan wax (figs. 8a–b). Figure 8b shows a mass spectrum corre- sponding to the dimethyl ester of docosanedioic acid, one of several minor components characteristic for Japan wax, detected in a sample from the drawing material. Japan wax has been documented in the literature as an important ingredient in pencil manufacture (Warth 1956). At least four distinct colors were used by Duchamp in the work: light blue, light tan, a darker orange-brown, and a dark grey or black. Analysis of samples using EDS revealed elemental compositions suggestive of a number of inorganic pigments. One representative spectrum, for example, shows the presence of chromium and lead con-
Homolka, Price, & Sutherland The Remaking of a Modernist Icon: Marcel Duchamp’s Nude Decending a Staircase No. 3 49
Fig. 5. Surface detail revealing the warm brown image tone of the photograph and applied graphite and ink lines (c. 6x magni- fication).
Fig. 7. Surface of Nude Descending (No. 3) in specular illumination, showing swirls of colored pencil/crayon applied over an area of heavy graphite.
Fig. 6. Surface detail showing graphite, black ink lines, and blue wash with liquid-induced tideline formation (c. 6x mag- nification).
a design component; highlights appear in the composition where selective removal or absence of the broad grey areas of graphite exposes the white of the photograph beneath. Several of these highlight areas exhibit pronounced flak- ing, often with directional cracks that at times appear to trace brush strokes (fig. 11). Examination of the flakes using MFTIR and in cross-section using light microscopy and SEM-EDS did not detect additional materials on the surface in these areas that might account for the localized flaking. One possible cause could be the use of a liquid or solvent by the artist to create the highlights by selectively manipulating or removing the smudged graphite. Such a process might have contributed to stress in the emulsion layer and led to its eventual cracking. Whatever the cause, this curious and rather serious condition problem warrants further investigation. Following thorough examination to identify and docu- ment the object’s condition, treatment was carried out first to consolidate and repair the photographic support along the side edges, where it had been more vulnerable to dam- age (particularly from handling and framing). Mechanical damage sustained along the edges included tears, punc- tures, and delamination of the paper support, in addition to binder insecurity and loss. Stabilization and reinforcement of the mechanical damage was carried out using cooked, precipitated wheat-starch paste, methyl cellulose, and thin Japanese paper. Stabilization of the surface primarily involved consolidation of extensive areas of insecure, lifting emulsion using a solution of photographic-grade gelatin applied with a fine brush, carried out while viewing through the stereomicroscope. Consolidation efforts focused on the most pronounced lifting associated with the long splits. Slight pressure was applied when necessary through silicone release Mylar to readhere vulnerable raised edges or flaps of the photographic emulsion. The severe flaking encountered throughout the white highlight areas as described above was not treated at this time, as techniques explored for consolidation were judged unsatisfactory; the areas remain a source of instability for the object and a factor impacting its display. With the cur- rent stabilization phase complete, the original frame will be retrofitted to provide adequate housing, and the work rein- stalled in its frame with new protective glazing.
ADDITIONAL CONTEXT AND HISTORY
Although Walter Arensberg had been too late to acquire any of Duchamp’s paintings directly from the Armory Show, he eventually would amass the largest collection of the artist’s work anywhere in the world. Today, the Louise and Walter Arensberg collection at the Philadelphia Museum of Art includes both large Nude Descending ver- sions in addition to the smaller oil study. While both large versions have been exhibited together on a few occasions,
for example in the landmark 1963 Duchamp retrospective at the Pasadena Art Museum in Pasadena, California (Clearwater 1991), more often Nude Descending (No. 3) has been exhibited as a surrogate for the oil painting. This has included either lending it to a borrowing institution when loan of the oil painting was not possible, or having it remain on view at the Philadelphia Museum of Art while Nude Descending (No. 2) was exhibited elsewhere. Curiously, in January 1960 the Nude Descending replica traveled to Newark, New Jersey, where it was installed as part of a window display at Bamberger’s department store (Wohl 2003). The display, which included several unclothed mannequins descending a makeshift staircase, was arranged by Duchamp himself to promote the publi- cation of a new catalogue raisonné by Robert Lebel. The Bamberger’s window display was not the first by Duchamp: in 1945 the artist arranged displays at Brentano’s Bookstore and at Gotham Book Mart in New York for the promotion of surrealist publications by André Breton. In fact, Duchamp’s connection to the shop win- dow display traces back to his early life and to his fascination with objects like the chocolate grinder, once admired through a shop window in Rouen. And of course associations to the Large Glass itself, as noted by several Duchamp scholars, are unavoidable. Ironically, even fifty years after the scandal and success of the Armory Show, the American public still was unac- cepting of depictions of the female nude—even in plastic—and the window display was dismantled after only a few days due to public outcry.
CONCLUSION
Today, due to a greater understanding of its material instability, particularly the extent of the flaking photo- graphic emulsion and other inherent vulnerability, Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 3) is no longer able to travel. Additional research into this wonderful and unique work, such as the search for the negative used to produce the enlargement, will continue to yield surprises and valuable insights. Finally, Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 3) pro- vides a fascinating window into the role of the replica in Duchamp’s body of work, and on the artist’s profound influence on the generations of artists since.
REFERENCES
Arensberg, W. 1943. Unpublished letter to Marcel Duchamp, May 21, 1943. Walter and Louise Arensberg Archives, Philadelphia Museum of Art. Bonk, E., translated by D. Britt. 1989. Marcel Duchamp: The Box in a Valise. New York: Rizzoli. Borgeson, B. 1995. The colored pencil: Key concepts for handling the medium. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications.
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Brown, M. 1988. The story of the Armory Show. New York: Abbeville Press. Clearwater, B., ed. 1991. West Coast Duchamp. Miami Beach, FL.: Grassfield Press. Crist, A. 2005. An investigation of the characteristics, com- positions, and identification methods of wax crayons and colored pencils, including a case study of a drawing by Roberto Matta. Unpublished student research paper. Buffalo N.Y.: Art Conservation Department, Buffalo State College. Duchamp, M. 1943. Unpublished letter to Walter Arensberg, July 5, 1942. Walter and Louise Arensberg Archives, Philadelphia Museum of Art. Eder, J. M. 1978. History of photography. New York: Dover edition, published by special arrangement with Columbia University Press. Eastman Kodak Company. 1916. Photographic papers manufactured by Eastman Kodak Company. Unpublished sample book of photographic papers. Rochester, N.Y.: George Eastman House International Museum of Photography and Film. ———. 1917. Catalogue of Eastman professional photographic apparatus and materials. Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Company. ———. 1931 Elementary photographic chemistry. Rochester, N.Y.: Eastman Kodak Company. Ellis, M. H., and M. B. Yea. 1988. The history, use, and characteristics of wax-based drawing media. The Paper Conservator 22: 48–55. Feller, R. L., ed. 1986. Artist’s pigments: A handbook of their history and characteristics, vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press for the National Gallery of Art, Washington. FitzHugh, E. W., ed. 1997. Artist’s pigments: A handbook of their history and characteristics, vol. 3. New York: Oxford University Press for the National Gallery of Art, Washington. Fraprie, F. R., ed. 1916. Practical photography no. 4: How to make prints in colors. Boston: American Photographic Publishing Co. ———, ed. 1916. Practical photography no. 5: How to make enlargements. Boston: American Photographic Publishing Co. Jarman, A. J. 1916. Dry mounting of photographic prints. In American Photography. Boston: American Photographic Publishing Co. McManus, J. 2006. Personal communication on the topic of Duchamp and photography. Naumann, F. 1991. Frederic C. Torrey and Duchamp’s Nude Descending a Staircase. In West Coast Duchamp. Miami Beach, FL.: Grassfield Press. Osborne, L. A. 1911. How to make enlargements on bromide and gaslight papers: A practical treatise for amateur workers. 3rd ed. Boston: American Photography Publishing Company.
Price, B. A., and K. Sutherland. 2005. Looking at Eugène Atget’s and Bernice Abbott’s prints: The photographic materials. In Looking at Atget. New Haven: Yale University Press. Reid, Z., N. McGuinne, and J. Fields. 2002. The Yeats archive: A method of identifying wax crayon. In Contributions to the IIC Baltimore Congress. London: International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. 176–179. Sawelson-Gorse, N. 1991. Hollywood conversations: Duchamp and the Arensbergs. In West Coast Duchamp. Miami Beach, FL: Grassfield Press. Schwarz, A. 1997. The complete works of Marcel Duchamp. 3rd ed. New York: Delano Greenidge Editions. Stoeffler, S. 2007. Examination of starch in Duchamp pho- tograph emulsions. McCrone Associates Project MA45297, March 20, 2007. Report on file in Scientific Research and Analysis Laboratory, Philadelphia Museum of Art. Tomkins, C. 1996. Marcel Duchamp: A biography. New York: Henry Holt & Co. Warth, A. H. 1956. The chemistry and technology of waxes. 2nd ed. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Whiting, A. 1914. Finishing portrait enlargements by air- brush, in pastel, colors and pencil. The Photo Miniature: A Magazine of Photographic Information 12: 133. Williams, W. C. [1918] 1971. Kora in hell. In Imaginations: Kora in hell, Spring and all, The great American novel, The descent of winter, A novelette, and other prose. New York: New Directions paperback edition. Wohl, H. 2003. Marcel Duchamp in Newark. The Burlington Magazine, 165 (1198), January. www.leadholder.com (accessed December 3, 2006).
SCOTT HOMOLKA Associate Conservator of Works of Art on Paper Philadelphia Museum of Art Philadelphia, Pennsylvania shomolka@philamuseum.org
BETH A. PRICE Senior Scientist Philadelphia Museum of Art Philadelphia, Pennsylvania bprice@philamuseum.org
KEN SUTHERLAND Conservation Scientist Philadelphia Museum of Art Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ksutherland@philamuseum.org
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