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What is child development?
Study of constancy and change from conception to adolescence. TERM 2
What are the four domains of child
development?
DEFINITION 2 Physical Social and Emotional Cognitive TERM 3
What is a theory?
DEFINITION 3 An orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior. TERM 4
What are contexts?
DEFINITION 4 Combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that affect development. TERM 5
What is discontinuous development?
DEFINITION 5 When new understandings and responses emerge at specific times in a child's life.
What is continuous development?
A view of development as gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with. TERM 7
What type of development is this? (hill)
DEFINITION 7 Continuous. TERM 8
What type of development is this? (steps)
DEFINITION 8 Discontinuous. TERM 9
What is the question of nature vs nurture?
DEFINITION 9 Are genetic or environmental factors more important in influencing development? TERM 10
What is one course
development?
DEFINITION 10 A development theory is said to be this when it is believed that it has one universal common path for all pople across all cultures and places.
What is the Psychoanalytic perspective?
Children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety. TERM 17
What is the Psychosexual Perspective?
(Freud)
DEFINITION 17 Emphasizes that how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial fro healthy personality development. TERM 18
What are the stages of psychosexual
perspective?
DEFINITION 18 Oral: birth-1 year, feeding Anal: 1-3 years, potty training Phallic: 3-6 years, superego formed, becomes like same- sex parent Latency: 6-11 years, social values formed more superego Genital: adolescence, puberty, marriage, child-bearing TERM 19
What are the three parts of the personality in
the psychosexual perspective?
DEFINITION 19 Id: the largest portion of the mind, the source of basic biological needs and desires. Ego: the conscious, rational part of the personality. Makes sure that the id is discharged in rational ways. Superego: the conscience, the social values and rules TERM 20
What is the Psychosocial theory? (Erikson)
DEFINITION 20 Emphasizes that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills at each stage that make the individual an active, contributing member of society.
What are the stages of the Psychosocial
theory?
Basic trust vs mistrust: birth-1 year (the care or lack of it) Autonomy vs shame and doubt: 1-3 years (free choice or force) Initiative vs guilt: 3-6 years (ambition and imagination or self- control and discipline) Industry vs inferiority: 6-11 years (becoming better or negative school and home experiences) Identity vs Identity confusion: adolescence Intimacy vs Isolation: young adulthood (Y/N friendships) Generativity vs stagnation: middle adulthood (Y/N children) Integrity vs Despair: old age (Y/N satisfied with life) TERM 22
What is behaviorism?
DEFINITION 22 Directly observable events--stimuli and responses--are the appropriate focus of study. TERM 23
What is Classical conditioning? (Watson)
DEFINITION 23 A form of learning where the subject learns to associate a neutral stimulus (a stimulus which initially produces no specific response) with another stimulus (like food or a loud noise) that produces a reflexive response (salivation, crying, worry). TERM 24
What is Operant conditioning? (Skinner)
DEFINITION 24 The theory that the frequency of a behavior can be increased by following it with a wide variety or reinforcers (food, drink, praise) or decreased through punishment (disapproval, withdrawal of privileges). TERM 25
What is positive reinforcement or
punishment?
DEFINITION 25 Giving something to increase or decrease a behavior.
What is the Social Learning Theory? (Bandura)
Emphasizes modeling, otherwise known as imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of development. Also emphasizes social-cognitave abilities which show the child's ability to listen and remember and how it affects their imitation of others. TERM 32
What is the Cognitive-Development Theory?
(Piaget)
DEFINITION 32 Children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world. TERM 33
What is adaptation?
DEFINITION 33 Involves building schemes through direct interaction with the environment. It consists of two complementary activities: assimilation and accommodation. TERM 34
What is assimilation?
DEFINITION 34 Use of current schemes to interpret the external world. AKA figuring out from what we know. TERM 35
What is accommodation?
DEFINITION 35 Creating new schemes or adjust old ones after noticing that our current way of thinking does not capture the environment completely. AKA creating new knowledge.
What is equilibrium?
The steady, comfortable state when children are not changing much, and they assimilate more than they accommodate. TERM 37
What are the four stages of Cognitive-
Developmental Theory?
DEFINITION 37 Sensorimotor : birth-2 years (think by the senses) Preoperational : 2-7 years (make-believe, language, symbols, lacks logic) Concrete operationa l: 7-11 years (logical reasoning and organization, not yet abstract) Formal operational: 11 years on (hypothesis, evaluate verbal statements) TERM 38
What is the Information Processing Theory?
DEFINITION 38 A perspective in which the human mind might be viewed as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows. It is similar to and often compared to a computer. From the time information is presented to the senses at input until it emerges as a behavioral response at output, information is actively coded, transformed, and organized. TERM 39
What is the sensory
register?
DEFINITION 39 The first place that information enters. Here sights and sounds are represented directly and stored briefly. TERM 40
What is short-term memory?
DEFINITION 40 Also called working memory. In this stage of memory, we actively apply mental strategies as we "work" on a limited amount of information.
What are Microsystems?
The innermost level of the environment consists of activities and interaction patterns in the child's immediate surroundings. TERM 47
What is the Mesosystem?
DEFINITION 47 The second level of Bronfenbrenner's model that encompasses connections between Microsystems, such as home, school, neighborhood, etc. TERM 48
What is the Exosystem?
DEFINITION 48 The third level, consisting of social settings that do not contain children but that nevertheless affect children's experiences in immediate settings. These can be formal organizations, such as parents' work places, church, health and welfare services in the community, etc. TERM 49
What is the Macrosystem?
DEFINITION 49 The outermost level of the model. It consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources. TERM 50
What is the Chronosystem?
DEFINITION 50 The temporal dimension of Bronfenbrenner's model. Chrono meaning time. Changes in life events can be imposed on the child, as in the examples just given. Alternatively, they can arise from within the child, since as children get older they select, modify, and create many other their own settings and experiences.
What is the Sociocultural Theory? (Vygotsky)
A theory that focuses on how culture--the values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group--is transmitted to the next generation. Social interaction--in particular, cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society--is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture. TERM 52
What is the role of culture in Vygotsky's
theory?
DEFINITION 52 The role of the culture and those more knowledgeable are very important in this theory. This is because it is believed that as children participate in dialogues and activities with more knowledgeable individuals and peers, they will be encouraged to master culturally important tasks. Vygotsky believed that children's learning takes place within the zone of proximal development--a range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of adults and more skilled peers. TERM 53
What is scaffolding?
DEFINITION 53 An important feature of social interaction that emphasizes adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance. TERM 54
What is Tabula Rasa?
DEFINITION 54 Latin for "blank slate". According to this idea, children begin as nothing at all; their characters are shaped entirely by experience. Sees parents as rational tutors who can mold the child in any way they wish through careful instruction, effective example, and rewards for good behavior. A perspective from the philosopher John Locke. TERM 55
What is a noble savage?
DEFINITION 55 Children, Rousseau, claimed, are not blank slates and empty containers to be filled by adult instruction. Instead, they are naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and with an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth. Unlike Locke, Rousseau believed that children's built-in moral sense and unique ways of thinking and feeling would only be harmed by adult training. Adults should be receptive to the child's needs.
What are the strengths of correlational
design?
Permits study of relationships between variables. TERM 62
What are the weaknesses of correlational
design?
DEFINITION 62 Does not permit inferences about cause-and-effect relationships. TERM 63
What is experimental design?
DEFINITION 63 A design that permits inferences about cause and effect because researchers use and evenhanded procedure to assign people to two or more treatment conditions. TERM 64
What is a laboratory experiment?
DEFINITION 64 Under controlled laboratory conditions, the investigator manipulates an independent variable and looks at its effect on a dependent variable; requires random assignment of participants to treatment conditions. TERM 65
What are the strengths of a laboratory
experiment?
DEFINITION 65 Permits inferences about cause-and-effect relationships.
What are the weaknesses of a laboratory
experiment?
Findings may not generalize to the real world. TERM 67
What is a field experiment?
DEFINITION 67 The investigator randomly assigns participants to treatment conditions in natural settings. TERM 68
What are the strengths of a field experiment?
DEFINITION 68 Permits generalization of experimental findings to the real world. TERM 69
What are the weaknesses of a field
experiment?
DEFINITION 69 Control over the treatment is generally weaker than in a laboratory experiment. TERM 70
What is a natural or quasi-, experiment?
DEFINITION 70 The investigator compares already existing treatments in the real world, carefully selecting groups of participants to ensure that their characteristics are as much alike as possible.
What is cross-sectional design?
The investigator studies groups of participants differing in age at the same time. TERM 77
What are the strengths of cross-sectional
design?
DEFINITION 77 More efficient than the longitudinal design. Not plagued by selective attrition, practice effects, or theoretical and methodological changes in the field. TERM 78
What are the weaknesses of a cross-sectional
design?
DEFINITION 78 Does not permit study of individual developmental trends. Age differences may be distorted because of cohort effects. TERM 79
What are the two types of systematic
observation?
DEFINITION 79 Naturalistic and structured. TERM 80
What is naturalistic
observation?
DEFINITION 80 Observation of behavior in natural contexts.
What are the strengths of naturalistic
observation?
Reflects participants' everyday behaviors. TERM 82
What are the weaknesses of naturalistic
observation?
DEFINITION 82 Cannot control conditions under which participants are observed. Accuracy of observations may be reduced by observer influence and observer bias. TERM 83
What is structured observation?
DEFINITION 83 Observation of behavior in a laboratory, where conditions are the same for all participants. TERM 84
What are the strengths of structured
observation?
DEFINITION 84 Grants each participant and equal opportunity to display the behavior of interest. Permits study of behaviors rarely seen in everyday life. TERM 85
What are the weaknesses of structured
observation?
DEFINITION 85 May not yield observations typical of participants' behavior in every-day life. Accuracy of observations nay be reduced by observer influence and observer bias.
What are the strengths of a structured
interview?
Permits comparisons of participants' responses and efficient data collection. Researchers can specify answer alternatives that participants might not think of in an open-ended interview. TERM 92
What are the weaknesses of a structured
interview?
DEFINITION 92 Des not yield the same depth of information as a clinical interview. Responses are still subject to inaccurate reporting. TERM 93
What are Psychophysiological Methods?
DEFINITION 93 Methods that measure the relationship between physiological processes and behavior. TERM 94
What are the strengths of Psychophysiological
Methods?
DEFINITION 94 Reveals which central nervous system structures contribute to development and individual differences in certain competencies. Helps infer the perceptions, thoughts, and emotions of infants and young children, who cannot report them clearly. TERM 95
What are the weaknesses of
Psychophysiological Methods?
DEFINITION 95 Cannot reveal with certainty the meaning of autonomic or brain activity. Many factors besides those of interest to the researcher can influence a physiological response.
What is the clinical or case study method?
A full picture of one individual's psychological functioning, obtained by combining interviews, observations, test scores, and sometimes psycho-physiological assessments. TERM 97
What are the strengths of the case study
method?
DEFINITION 97 Provides rich, descriptive insights into factors that affect development. TERM 98
What are the weaknesses of the case study
method?
DEFINITION 98 May be biased by researchers' theoretical preferences. Findings cannot be applied to individuals other than the participant. TERM 99
What is ethnography?
DEFINITION 99 Participant observation of a culture or distinct social group; by making extensive field notes, the researcher tries to capture the culture's unique values and social processes. TERM 100
What are the strengths of ethnography?
DEFINITION 100 Provides a more complete description that can be derived from a single observational visit, interview, or questionnaire.
